Robert's-Theory of Terrorism in Gestalt Psychology

Latest on Terror.

2010-10-05T18:21:00.002+03:00

The PKK's Community center was under scanner by the police. The community leader the media says was unreacheable. police raids across Melbourne, Perth and Sydney have made public an ongoing dispute between the federal government and a variety of community groups over Australia's terrorism legislation.
Return to video The police said Kurdish raids not a misuse of terror laws.

While in indonesia in the Aceh province 21 suspected militants go on trial in Indonesi. The islamic hardcore jihadists are accused of plotting and killing foreign aid workers. "They also think Americans, Britons and Australians support and help Israel kill Muslims in many countries," said Feritas, who represents the state in several of the cases.(source: PTI)

In a similar terrorism related news Philippine police capture two Abu Sayyaf militant. The militants who carried a bounty of USD13,000 were wanted in high profile kidnappings as well as deadly ambush that killed 14 soldiers.(Source: PTI NEWS)

Not to forget the Yemeni Alqaeda, Yemeni officials say the US is exaggerating as well as the western media on the size and danger that it poses. While threat is a reality the officials say the exaggeration is not justified. And the US security experts on Middle east unnamed source say They're not feeling the same kind of heat -- not yet, anyway -- as their friends in the tribal areas" of Pakistan, he said, adding that "everyone involved on our side understands that has to change.(Source: PTI )

International Relations Theory in the context of terrorism

2010-03-10T09:59:00.004+03:00

ABSTRACT

This article focuses on the international relations theory context of the contemporary discourse on terrorism. It is contended that the discourse predominantly subscribes to a prevailing global order that is overwhelmed by the complexities of post-international politics, interdependence and structural relations. The discourse is seen to be incarcerated in a conceptual prison, to the extent that scholars of terrorism and politicians dealing with the issue

find it difficult to escape the premise of state predominance and therefore adhere to assumptions about hierarchy, authority, and sovereignty. This theoretical posture exhibits a rationalist bias that marginalises contrasting viewpoints and distorts political rhetoric, practice and policy. To validate these claims, the theoretical landscape that provides the context of the discourse on terrorism is assessed, followed by a reflection on the limits of concepts and perspectives of terrorism within this landscape. Since competing conceptions are, with few excepti ons, mostly underdeveloped, marginalised or even silenced, the opportunity exists for conciliatory theorising and bridge-building.

1. INTRODUCTION

This article addresses the international relations theory context of the contemporary discourse on terrorism. (1) The basic contention is that parsimonious theories of terrorism subscribe to a prevailing global order that is overwhelmed by or oblivious to some of the complexities of post-international politics, the interdependence that sustains it, and the structural relations that underpin it. (2) In addition, it is argued that the discourse on terrorism tends to be rationalist in nature. Within the confines of international relations theory the limits of this rationalist mode of theorising and the conceptualisations that accompany it, curtail a critical and reflectivist approach to the subject matter. The rationalist bias and dominance marginalise contending perspectives and may even distort political rhetoric, practice and policy.

In order to address these claims, this article covers two aspects. (3) On the one hand, it assesses the theoretical landscape of international relations within which the discourse on terrorism is located. On the other hand, within the context of this landscape, it briefly examines the theoretical contours of the discourse. The aim is to indicate that this discourse, not unlike that on other sectoral security concerns, is embedded in and representative of mainstream theorising of a positivist, explanatory and problem-solving nature. In conclusion, since competing conceptions are with few exceptions underdeveloped, marginalised or even silenced, the need and opportunity exist for conciliatory, extra-paradigmatic theorising and bridge-building.

2. STATING THE PROBLEM

Considering the topical nature of terrorism since the events of 11 September 2001, the deluge of divergent interpretations, commentaries and projections is hardly surprising. However, within the political sciences and related disciplines, strategic studies in particular, the phenomenon of terrorism has traditionally been one of the most researched, written-about and topical issue-fields. In addition, within social science disciplines ranging from sociology, through criminology to psychology, and within the fields of theology and law, terrorism has received ample attention. These contributions have also culminated in various multi- and interdisciplinary endeavours to explain and understand terrorism as a threat to state and society; a phenomenon that apparently defies logic, rationality and ethics, as well as most attempts to resolve, contain or deter it. Although several research and government institutions, mostly in Western countries, focus on terrorism as an ongoing concern, public and academic interest in it usually ensues from acts of national and international terror and therefore fluctuates. Hence cataclysmic events as experienced recently add to the incidental and temporary salience of the issue-field.

Irrespective of the aforesaid, the structural features and turbulent nature of post-Cold War politics have contributed to the resurgence of terrorism, albeit in adapted forms and modes that depart in many respects from the predominantly ideology-based and revolutionary variants of the former bipolar era. Thus, the attention given to terrorism in academic and government circles over the past decade and its prioritisation on security agendas is not unexpected. However, these endeavours often go unnoticed except for the informed public and, those involved in security affairs. Admittedly, 11 September 2001 and its aftermath is still on the events horizon and therefore in historical terms too close to the present to allow a conclusion on whether or not it constitutes a watershed that introduced irrevocable and enduring change in the parameters and fundamentals of global politics. Nevertheless, it can be accepted that the immediate impact, intermediate repercussions and longer-term ramifications of the attack on t he United States (US) will ensure that terrorism remains a permanent fixture of politics for some time to come.

As has often been the case in the past, bearing the contending interpretations of recent events and the dominance of a Western discursive elite in mind, contemporary (attempts at) analysis provides ample evidence of the problematic nature of conceptualising terrorism and the limits of theories to adequately explain and provide an understanding of its causes and rationale. In part, this problem is reducible to certain meta-theoretical dimensions of the discourse, more specifically to the limits of contemporary concepts and perspectives. To put it differently and to paraphrase and quote Rosenau in the context of this discussion, the discourse on terrorism is incarcerated in a conceptual and theoretical prison to the extent that scholars, "like politicians, are prisoners of their paradigms, unwilling or unable to escape the premise of state predominance and constantly tempted to cling to familiar assumptions about hierarchy, authority, and sovereignty". (41)-read more.........?////

Terror Attacks on Israel since 1920

2010-03-10T09:57:00.002+03:00

The first arab sponsored terrorist attack upon Jews occurred in 1920, long before the establishment of Israel and long before there were any so-called palestinians. In 1929 arab mobs massacred over 100 Jews, 67 of them in 1929 Hebron massacre alone, an ancient community where Jews lived among arabs peacefully for centuries. Many of the corpses were mutilated by arabs.

Eighty years later, the death toll from arab terrorism in Israel continues to grow. In September of 2002, I began the preparation of a listing of all victims of arab terrorists in Israel. I did this because I was unable to find a comprehensive listing of all terrorist attacks in Israel and so, I made one myself. A good bit of the information contained here comes from Israel's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, but sadly, the various listings available there do not include all terrorist attacks in Israel. Additional attacks have been added to original list and there are many more to be added.

I have been unable to locate details concerning the terrorist attacks from 1920 through 1948 perpetuated upon residents of Mandatory Palestine and, from 1948 through 1952, upon the residents of the State of Israel. However, the following statistics were provided by the National Insurance Institute and recently posted by Israel's Ministry of Foreign Affairs:

Year	Number killed
1920	9
1921	24
1922	5
1923	0
1924	4
1925	1
1926	1
1927	1
1928	0
1929	119
1920s total = 164

Year	Number killed
1930	0
1931	2
1932	4
1933	0
1934	0
1935	1
1936	44
1937	10
1938	94
1939	26
1930s total = 181

Year	Number killed
1940	137
1941	14
1942	4
1943	1
1944	3
1945	1
1946	28
1947	152
1948	379
1949	37
1940s total = 756

Year	Number killed
1950	52
1951	41
1952	40
1953	46
1954	41
1955	30
1956	53
1957	19
1958	15
1959	10
1950s total = 347

I have continued to maintain and update this listing as these atrocities continue to occur and innocent people continue to fall victim to such horrors.
If you note any inaccuracies or omissions in this listing please let me know.

Aug 23, 1929, Hebron Massacre: Arab rioters killed 67 Jews in Hebron . Many of the dead were dismembered. Many incidents of rape were reported. Numerous homes were burned. The remaining Jewish community of Hebron fled to Jerusalem
April 19, 1936, Jaffa Massacre: Arab rioters attacked Jaffa and killed 16 Jews.
Jan 01, 1952 - Seven armed terrorists attacked and killed a nineteen year-old girl in her home, in the neighborhood of Beit Yisrael, in Jerusalem.
Apr 14, 1953 - Terrorists tried for the first time to infiltrate Israel by sea, but were unsuccessful. One boat was intercepted and the other escaped.
Jun 07, 1953 - A youngster was killed and three others were wounded, in shooting attacks on residential areas in southern Jerusalem.
Jun 09, 1953 - Terrorists attacked a farming community near Lod, and killed one of the residents. The terrorists threw hand grenades and sprayed gunfire in all directions. On the same night, another group of terrorists attacked a house in the town of Hadera. This occurred a day after Israel and Jordan signed an agreement, with UN mediation, in which Jordan undertook to prevent terrorists from crossing into Israel from Jordanian territory.
Jun 10, 1953 - Terrorists infiltrating from Jordan destroyed a house in the farming village of Mishmar Ayalon.
Jun 11, 1953 - Terrorists attacked a young couple in their home in Kfar Hess, and shot them to death.
Sep 02, 1953 - Terrorists infiltrated from Jordan, and reached the neighborhood of Katamon, in the heart of Jerusalem. They threw hand grenades in all directions. Miraculously, no one was hurt.
Mar 17, 1954 - Terrorists ambushed a bus traveling from Eilat to Tel Aviv, and opened fire at short range when the bus reached the area of Maale Akrabim in the northern Negev. In the initial ambush, the terrorists killed the driver and wounded most of the passengers. The terrorists then boarded the bus, and shot each passenger, one by one. Eleven passengers were murdered. Survivors recounted how the murderers spat on the bodies and abused them. The terrorists could clearly be traced back to the Jordanian border, some 20 km from the site of the terrorist attack.
Jan 02, 1955 - Terrorists killed two hikers in the Judean Desert.
Mar 24, 1955 - Terrorists threw hand grenades and opened fire on a crowd at a wedding in the farming community of Patish, in the Negev. A young woman was killed, and eighteen people were wounded in the attack.
Apr 07, 1956 - A resident of Ashkelon was killed in her home, when terrorists threw three hand grenades into her house. Two members of Kibbutz Givat Chaim were killed, when terrorists opened fire on their car, on the road from Plugot Junction to Mishmar Hanegev. There were further hand grenade and shooting attacks on homes and cars, in areas such as Nitzanim and Ketziot. One person was killed and three others wounded.
Apr 11, 1956 - Terrorists opened fire on a synagogue full of children and teenagers, in the farming community of Shafrir. Three children and a youth worker were killed on the spot, and five were wounded, including three seriously.
Apr 29, 1956 - Egyptians killed Roi Rotenberg, 21 years of age, from Nahal Oz.
Sep 12, 1956 - Terrorists killed three Druze guards at Ein Ofarim, in the Arava region.
Sep 23, 1956 - Terrorists opened fire from a Jordanian position, and killed four archaeologists, and wounded sixteen others, near Kibbutz Ramat Rachel.
Sep 24, 1956 - Terrorists killed a girl in the fields of the farming community of Aminadav, near Jerusalem.
Oct 04, 1956 – Terrorists killed five Israeli workers in Sdom.
Oct 09, 1956 - Two workers were killed by terrorists in an orchard of the youth village, Neve Hadassah, in the Sharon region.
Nov 08, 1956 - Terrorists opened fire on a train, attacked cars and blew up wells, in the North and Center of Israel. Six Israelis were wounded.
Feb 18, 1957 - Two civilians were killed by terrorist landmines, next to Nir Yitzhak, on the southern border of the Gaza Strip.
Mar 08, 1957 - A shepherd from Kibbutz Beit Govrin was killed by terrorists in a field near the Kibbutz.
Apr 16, 1957 - Terrorists infiltrated from Jordan, and killed two guards at Kibbutz Mesilot.
May 20, 1957 - A terrorist opened fire on a truck in the Arava region, killing a worker.
May 29, 1957 - A tractor driver was killed and two others wounded, when the vehicle struck a terrorist landmine, next to Kibbutz Kisufim.
Jun 23, 1957 - Israelis were wounded by terrorist landmines, close to the Gaza Strip.
Aug 23, 1957 - Two guards of the Israeli Mekorot water company were killed by terrorists near Kibbutz Beit Govrin.
Dec 21, 1957 - A member of Kibbutz Gadot was killed by terrorists in the Kibbutz fields.
Feb 11, 1958 - Terrorists killed a resident of Moshav Yanov who was on his way to Kfar Yona, in the Sharon area.
Apr 05, 1958 - Terrorists lying in ambush shot and killed two people near Tel Lachish.
Apr 22, 1958 - Jordanian terrorists shot and killed two fishermen near Aqaba.
May 26, 1958 - Four Israeli police officers were killed in a Jordanian terrorist attack on Mt. Scopus, in Jerusalem.
Nov 17, 1958 - Syrian terrorists killed the wife of the British air attache in Israel, who was staying at the guesthouse of the Italian Convent on the Mt. of the Beatitudes.
Dec 03, 1958 - A shepherd was killed at Kibbutz Gonen. In the artillery attack by terrorists that followed, 31 civilians were wounded.
Jan 23, 1959 - A shepherd from Kibbutz Lehavot Habashan was killed by terrorists.
Feb 01, 1959 - Three civilians were killed by a terrorist landmine near Moshav Zavdiel.
Apr 15, 1959 - A guard was killed by terrorists at Kibbutz Ramat Rahel.
Apr 27, 1959 - Two hikers were shot at close range by terrorists and killed near Massada.
Sep 06, 1959 - Bedouin terrorists killed a paratroop reconnaissance officer near Nitzana.
Sep 08, 1959 - Bedouins terrorists opened fire on an army bivouac in the Negev, killing an IDF officer, Captain Yair Peled.
Oct 03, 1959 - A shepherd from Kibbutz Heftziba was killed by terrorists near Kibbutz Yad Hana.
Apr 26, 1960 - Terrorists killed a resident of Ashkelon south of the city.
Apr 12, 1962 - Terrorists fired on an Egged bus on the way to Eilat; one passenger was wounded.
Sep 30, 1962 - Two terrorists attacked an Egged bus on the way to Eilat. No one was wounded.
Jan 01, 1965 - Palestinian terrorists attempted to bomb the National Water Carrier. This was the first attack carried out by the PLO's Fatah faction.
May 31, 1965 - Jordanian terrorists fired on the neighborhood of Musrara in Jerusalem, killing two civilians and wounding four.
Jun 01, 1965 - Terrorists attack a house in Kibbutz Yiftach.
Jul 05, 1965 - A Fatah terrorism cell planted explosives at Mitzpe Massua, near Beit Guvrin; and on the railroad tracks to Jerusalem near Kafr Battir.
Aug 26, 1965 - A waterline was sabotaged by terrorists at Kibbutz Manara, in the Upper Galilee.
Sep 29, 1965 - A terrorist was killed as he attempted to attack Moshav Amatzia.
Nov 7, 1965 - A Fatah terrorist cell that infiltrated from Jordan blew up a house in Moshav Givat Yeshayahu, south of Beit Shemesh. The house was destroyed, but the inhabitants were miraculously unhurt.
Apr 25, 1966 - Explosions placed by terrorists wounded two civilians and damaged three houses in Moshav Beit Yosef, in the Beit Shean Valley.
May 16, 1966 - Two Israelis were killed when their jeep hit a terrorist landmine, north of the Sea of Galilee and south of Almagor. Tracks led into Syria.
Jul 13, 1966 - Two soldiers and a civilian were killed near Almagor, when their truck struck a terrorist landmine.
Jul 14, 1966 - Terrorists attacked a house in Kfar Yuval, in the North.
Jul 19, 1966 - Terrorists infiltrated into Moshav Margaliot on the northern border and planted nine explosive charges.
Oct 27, 1966 - A civilian was wounded by a terrorist bomb on the railroad tracks to Jerusalem.
Jan 14, 1967 - Terrorists laid a land mine that at a soccer game, which exploded killing 1 and injuring 2.
Mar 06, 1968 - A terrorist explosion at the Hebrew University cafeteria wounded dozens of students.
Mar 18, 1968 - Terrorists laid a land mine that blew up a school bus, killing 2 children and injuring 28 others.
Sep 04, 1968 - Palestinian terrorists planted explosives in the Tel Aviv bus station, killing one person, and wounding 70.
Sep 22, 1968 - Palestinian terrorists booby trapped a car. The car exploded in the shopping market Mahen Yehuda in Jerusalem, killing 12 people and wounding 70.
Jun 17, 1969 - Shirley Louise Anderson, a 25 year -old tourist from Rochester, New York, was killed when PLO shelled the Israeli resort town of Kallia
Dec 27, 1969 - Leon Holz, 48, a tourrist from Brooklyn, New York was killed when PLO terrorists fired shots at a tourist bus near Hebron
Feb 21, 1970 - Barbara Ertle, of Grandville, Michigan, wife of Reverend Theodore Ertl, was killed during a PLO terrorist shooting attack on a busload of pilgrims in the village of Halhoul, near Hebron
May 22, 1970- Palestinian terrorists attacked a school bus at the Mosha Avivim in the Upper Galilee. 9 children, the driver and 2 other adults are killed, and 19 children are wounded.
Jan 22, 1971 - Palestinian terrorists attacked an Israeli family in the Gaza Strip, killing 2 children and wounding the mother.
Jul 07, 1971 - Palestinian terrorists launched Katushya rockets on Petach Tikva, near Tel Aviv, killing 3 women and one child.
Oct 09, 1971 - A terrorist threw a hand grenade at the Western Wall, wounding 16 Israelis.
May 30, 1972 - Terrorists from the Red Army allied with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine shoot indiscriminately in the Lod airport, killing 25 people and wounding 70. One of those killed was Aharon Katzir, an internationally renowned scientist.
Sept 5, 1972, Munich Massacre: Palestinian terrorists killed 11 Israeli athletes and one German policeman in a dormitory of the Munich Olympic Games.
Mar 05, 1974 - Eight PLO terrorists reached Tel Aviv by sea and took over a hotel killing 3 Israeli soldiers.
Apr 11, 1974 - PLO terrorists attacked Kiryat Shmona, killing 8 children, 8 adults, and 2 soldiers.
May 15, 1974 - Maalot Massacre:  22 children and several adults were killed (66 children were wounded) by Palestinian terrorists of the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine
Nov 19, 1974 - PLO terrorists infiltrate into the town of Bet She'an, killing 4 residents and wounding 20 others.
Nov 20, 1974 - PLO terrorists infiltrated from Syria into the Ramat Magshimim settlement, killing 3 students and wounding 2.
Dec 11, 1974 - A terrorist threw a bomb into a Tel Aviv movie theater killing 2 people and wounding 60 others.
Nov 21, 1975 - Michael Nadler, an American-Israeli student from Miami Beach, Florida, was killed when axe-wielding terrorists from the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine, a PLO faction, attacked students at in the Israeli town of Ramat Hamagshimim.
Apr 28, 1976 - A terrorist explosion in the heart of Jerusalem killed 2 police officers.
Dec 08, 1977 - PLO terrorists launched a Katushya rocket at Nahariya, killing one woman.
Mar 11, 1978 - PLO terrorists seized a bus on the coastal road, killing 35 men, women, and children.
Mar 11, 1978 - Gali Rubin, niece of U.S Senator Abraham Ribicoff, was shot to death by PLO terrorists on the Tel-Aviv beachfront.
Mar 17, 1978 - PLO terrorists launched Katushyas on the Western Galilee, killing 2 and wounding 2.
Jun 02, 1978 - A PLO terrorist bomb blows up in a bus in Jerusalem killing 6 people and wounding 19.
Aug 03, 1978 - A terrorist bomb blew up in the Carmel Market in Tel Aviv, killing 1 and wounding nearly 50.
Dec 21, 1978 - PLO terrorists launched a katushya rocket, which killed 1 and wounded 10 in Kiryat Shmona.
Apr 22, 1979 - Terrorists killed a father his two daughters and a policeman in Netanya.
Apr 07, 1980 - PLO terrorists attacked Kibbutz Misgav Am at the northern border, killing 3 Israelis and wounding 16.
May 02, 1980 - PLO terrorists attacked worshipers walking home from synagogue in Hebron. Eli Haze'ev, an American-Israeli from Alexandria, Virginia, was one of those killed.
Oct 05, 1980 - A terrorist planted a bomb in a package which exploded in a post office in Givatayim, killing 3 and wounding 7 Israelis.
Mar 06, 1981 - A Palestinian terrorist landed in Israel by wind surfer and took a hostage.
Jan 08, 1983 - PLO terrorists wound 11 after throwing a hand grenade at a bus.
Jul 01, 1983 - Aharon Gross, age 19, an American-Israeli from New York, was stabbed to death by PLO terrorists in the Hebron marketplace.
Dec 06, 1983 - PLO terrorists attacked a bus in Jerusalem, killing 6 Israeli citizens and wounding 50.
Apr 02, 1984 - A Palestinian terrorist indiscriminately opened fire in West Jerusalem killing 1 and injuring 60.
Apr 12, 1984 - PLO terrorists hijacked bus #300, killing one Israeli. Two terrorists are captured alive and later beaten to death by General Security Service agents.
Oct 22, 1984 - Palestinian terrorists murdered 2 students one male and one female, near a monastery in Bethlehem.
Nov 06, 1984 - IDF soldier David Manos was kidnapped and murdered by terrorists on the Lod-Petah Tikva road. His body was found on 14 March 1986 near the village of Dir Balut. His murderers were apprehended.
Nov 29, 1984 - IDF soldier Hadas Kedmi was kidnapped by terrorists after entering a vehicle in which she hitched a ride. Her body was found at the Carmel foothills near Kibbutz Beit Oren on 11 Dec 1994.
Jun 10, 1985 - Reservist David Pelzan, from Eilat, was kidnapped by terrorists and murdered. His body was discovered at the Kissufim junction.
Jun 27, 1985 - An Israeli man and woman were shot to death by terrorists near Beit Shemesh. The perpetrators were caught and claimed affiliation with Fatah.
Aug 03, 1986 - Yaron Chen, a Tsahal soldier, was kidnapped by Hamas terrorists while hitch-hiking back home. His body was later found in the burnt truck.
Oct 15, 1986 - Terrorists threw a grenade at the Western Wall killing Gail Klein and injuring 69 people.
Apr 11, 1987 - Palestinian terrorists threw a bomb into the car of Ofra Moses, who burned to death. Her family members were also injured in the incident.
Sep 04, 1987 - A Palestinian terrorist murdered a hitchhiking soldier at Megido Junction.
Oct 21, 1987 - Palestinian terrorists murdered an 8 year old girl from Elon Moreh.
Nov 25, 1987 - A PLO terrorist infiltrated from Jordan on a hang glider. He entered an Israeli army base, and killed 6 soldiers.
Dec 28, 1987 - December 28th to the 29th Israeli postal workers discovered 8 terrorist letter bombs. One exploded that wounded 2 Israelis.
Mar 07, 1988 - PLO terrorists infiltrated from Egypt, killing 3 nuclear reactor workers riding a bus.
Apr 08, 1988 - Palestinian terrorists attacked a group of hikers, causing one girl to die, wounding 15.
Jun 15, 1988 - A Palestinian terrorist stabbed to death Professor Menahem Stern while walking through the Valley of the Cross, in Jerusalem.
Aug 20, 1988 - Terrorists exploded a bomb in a Haifa pedestrian mall, injuring 25 Israeli shoppers.
Oct 30, 1988 - Palestinian terrorists firebombed an Israeli bus in Jericho, killing a mother and her 3 children.
Feb 16, 1989 - Sgt. Avi Sasportas was kidnapped by terrorists and shot to death while hitchhiking at the Hodaya junction. His body, which had been buried at the Givati junction in southern Israel, was discovered on 7 May 1989.
May 03, 1989 - Cpl. Ilan Saadon was kidnapped by a Hamas terrorist cell. On 22 Nov 1990, Saadon was declared a fallen IDF soldier. His body was found on 29 Jul 1996.
May 03, 1989 - A Palestinian terrorist stabbed 2 civilians and wounded another 3 in the shopping district at Zion Square, Jerusalem.
Jun 16, 1989 - A Palestinian terrorist stabbed an Israeli to death in Ariel.
Jul 06, 1989 - A Palestinian terrorist forced the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem bus off a cliff, killing 14 Israelis and wounding dozens of others.
May 28, 1990 - Terrorists exploded a bomb in Mahane Yehuda market in Jerusalem, killed one and injured 9.
May 30, 1990 - Israeli forces foiled a terrorist attack by sea on the beaches of Tel-Aviv by the Palestine Liberation Front. Four PLF members were killed and twelve wounded.
Jul 28, 1990 - Marnie Kimelman, a Canadian tourist, was killed by a terrorist bomb on a Tel Aviv beach.
Aug 04, 1990 - Palestinian terrorists kidnapped and murdered two teenagers from Jerusalem.
Sep 20, 1990 - Amnon Pomeranz, a soldier, was brutally murdered by terrorists after losing his way and ending up in al-Bureis Refugee Camp in Gaza.
Oct 21, 1990 - A Palestinian terrorist stabbed and killed a female solder, a policeman, and a civilian in Jerusalem.
Nov 12, 1990 - A Palestinian terrorist infiltrated from Jordan, killing an outpost's commanding officer.
Nov 25, 1990 - An Egyptian terrorist shot at passing Israeli military and civilian vehicles, killing 4 and wounding 26.
Dec 02, 1990 - Three Hamas terrorists stabbed and killed an Israeli, wounding 3 others, on a bus between Petach Tikva and Tel Aviv.
Dec 14, 1990 - Two Hamas terrorists killed 3 employees, one female, in a Jaffa metal works factory.
Mar 18, 1991 - A Palestinian terrorist murdered 4 women in Jerusalem.
Oct 11, 1991 - Master Sergeant Aaron Agmon Klijami and Sergeant Shmuel Michaeli were run over and killed at the Tel Hashomer soldiers' hitch-hiking station by a terrorist who deliberately drove a van into a queue of soldiers waiting for lifts. Eleven other soldiers were injured.
Oct 28, 1991 – Terrorist gunmen fired on a bus carrying Israeli settlers, killing two Israelis and wounding several others. The PIJ and the PFLP claimed responsibility.
Feb 14, 1992 - Israeli Arab terrorists axed to death three soldiers near Kibbutz Gal ‘Ed.
May 24, 1992 - Helena Rapp, a fifteen year old girl from Bat-Yam was stabbed to death by a Hamas terrorist from Nuseirat, Gaza District. The murderer was apprehended at the scene.
May 30, 1992 - Two Palestinian terrorists killed an Israeli civilian in Eilat.
Jun 25, 1992 - A resident of Ma'ale Levona was injured while traveling with his family to Jerusalem by an axe-wielding terrorist from the village of Sanjiel. The terrorist was shot and apprehended.
Sep 18, 1992 - IDF soldier, Alon Caravani, was kidnapped by terrorists from the Izz al-Din al-Qassam squad who gave the hitchhiking soldier a lift in their car. He was stabbed, and then thrown from the vehicle.
Sep 22, 1992 - A border policeman, Avinoam Peretz, was shot and killed by a terrorist at Shoefat junction, French Hill, Jerusalem. The terrorist claimed that he had been recruited by the Izz al-Din al-Qassam squads (Hamas).
Nov 20, 1992 - Terrorists from the Izz al-Din al-Qassam gang planned a car-bomb attack in a heavily populated area in the center of the country. The car was detected in Or Yehuda and, after a chase, the car was stopped and the bomb in it was defused. Two of the terrorists in the car were apprehended and admitted affiliation with the Izz al-Din al-Qassam (Hamas).
Dec 12, 1992 - Staff Sgt. Major Nissim Toledano, of the Border Police, a 29 year old resident of Lod, was kidnapped by Hamas terrorists while traveling from his home to his base. He was murdered several hours later, while the terrorists were still negotiating for the return of their imprisoned leader Ahmad Yassin. His body was found on 15 Dec 1992 near the Samaritan grave on the Maaleh Adumim-Jericho road.
Dec 19, 1992 - A Hamas terrorist kidnapped and murdered a policeman in Jerusalem.
Feb 24, 1993 - Hava Wechsberg, age 11, was killed when Palestinian terrorist rock-throwers attacked the car in which she was riding, causing it to crash, near Karmei Tzur.
Mar 12, 1993 - Pvt. Yehoshua Friedberg was kidnapped and murdered by terrorists. The Canadian-born soldier, who were serving in the Golani Brigade, had immigrated to Israel in 1991. He resided in Jerusalem.
Jul 01, 1993 - A Hamas terrorist killed 2 women and wounded one man.
Sep 24, 1993 - Yigal Vaknin was stabbed to death by terrorists in an orchard near the trailer home where he lived near the village of Basra. A squad of the Hamas' Iz a-Din al Kassam claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 9, 1993 - Dror Forer and Aran Bachar were murdered by terrorists in Wadi Kelt in the Judean Desert. The Popular Front and the Islamic Jihad 'Al-Aqsa Squads' each publicly claimed responsibility.
Oct 24, 1993 - Two IDF soldiers, Staff Sgt. (res.) Ehud Rot, age 35, and Sgt. Ilan Levi, age 23, were killed by a Hamas Iz a-Din al Kassam terrorist squad. The soldiers entered a Subaru with Israeli license plates outside a Jewish settlement in the Gaza Strip, whose passengers were apparently terrorists disguised as Israelis. Following a brief struggle, the soldiers were shot at close range and killed. Hamas publicly claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 29, 1993 - Chaim Mizrahi, resident of Beit-El, was kidnapped by three terrorists from a poultry farm near Ramallah. He was murdered and his body burned. Three Fatah members were convicted of the murder on Jul 27, 1994.
Nov 07, 1993 - Efraim Ayubi of Kfar Darom, Rabbi Chaim Druckman's personal driver, was shot to death by terrorists near Hebron. HAMAS publicly claimed responsibility for the murder.
Nov 09, 1993 - Salman 'Id el-Hawashla, age 38, an Israeli Bedouin of the Abu Rekaik tribe who was driving a car with Israeli plates, was killed by three armed terrorists driving a truck hijacked from the Gaza municipality, in a deliberate head-on collision.
Nov 17, 1993 - Sgt. 1st Cl. Chaim Darina, age 37, was stabbed by a Gazan terrorist while seated at the cafeteria at the Nahal Oz road block at the entrance to the Gaza Strip. The terrorist was apprehended. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the murder.
Dec 01, 1993 - Shalva Ozana, age 23, and Yitzhak Weinstock, age 19, were shot to death by terrorists from a moving vehicle, while parked on the side of the road to Ramallah because of engine trouble. Weinstock died of his wounds the following morning. Iz a-Din al Kassam claimed responsibility for the attack, stating that it was carried out in retaliation for the killing by Israeli forces of Imad Akel, a wanted HAMAS leader in Gaza.
Dec 05, 1993 - David Mashrati, a reserve soldier, was shot and killed by a terrorist attempting to board a bus on route 641 at the Holon junction. The Islamic Jihad Shekaki group claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 06, 1993 - Mordechai Lapid and his son Shalom Lapid, age 19, were shot to death by terrorists near Hebron. Hamas publicly claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 22, 1993 - Eliahu Levin and Meir Mendelovitch were killed by shots fired at their car by terrorists from a passing vehicle in the Ramallah area. Hamas claimed responsibility.
Dec 23, 1993 - Anatoly Kolisnikov, an Ashdod resident employed as a relief watchman at a construction site there, was stabbed to death by terrorists while on duty.
Dec 24, 1993 - Lieut.Col. Meir Mintz, commander of the IDF special forces in the Gaza area, was shot and killed by terrorists in an ambush on his jeep at the T-junction in Gaza. The Hamas Iz a-Din al Kassam squads publicly claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 31, 1993 - Chaim Weizman and David Bizi were found after being murdered by terrorists in a Ramle apartment. ID cards of two Gaza residents were found in the apartment, together with a leaflet of the Popular Front 'Red Eagle' group, claiming responsibility for the murder.
Jan 12, 1994 - Moshe Becker of Rishon Le-Zion was stabbed to death by three Palestinian terrorist employees while working in his orchard. The Popular Front claimed responsibility for the murder.
Jan 14, 1994 - Grigory Ivanov was stabbed to death by a terrorist in the industrial zone at the Erez junction, near the Gaza Strip. HAMAS claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 09, 1994 - Ilan Sudri, a taxi driver, was kidnapped and murdered by terrorists while returning home from work. The Islamic Jihad Shekaki group sent a message to the news agencies claiming responsibility for the murder.
Feb 10, 1994 - Naftali Sahar, a citrus grower, was murdered by blows to his head, inflicted by terrorists. His body was found in his orchard near Kibbutz Na'an.
Feb 13, 1994 - Noam Cohen, age 28, member of the General Security Service, was shot and killed in a terrorist ambush on his car. Two of his colleagues who were also in the vehicle suffered moderate injuries. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 17, 1994 - Yuval Golan, stabbed on December 29, 1993 by a terrorist near Adarim in the Hebron area, died of his wounds.
Feb 19, 1994 - Zipora Sasson, resident of Ariel and five months pregnant, was killed on the trans-Samaria highway in an ambush when Hamas terrorists fired shots at her car.
Feb 25, 1994 - Sam Eisenstadt, age 80, was assaulted by a terrorist with an axe in the center of Kfar Saba. He died of his wounds shortly afterwards.
Mar 23, 1994 - Victor Lashchiver, employed as a guard at the Income Tax offices in East Jerusalem, was shot and killed by terrorists near Damascus Gate on his way to work. The Popular Front claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 29, 1994 - Yitzhak Rothenberg, age 70, of Petah Tikva, was attacked on a construction site by two residents of Khan Yunis by axe blows to the head. He died several days later of his wounds. The murderers, apprehended the next day, stated that they carried out the attack in order to clear themselves of suspected collaboration with the Israeli authorities.
Mar 31, 1994 - Yosef Zandani, age 28, of Bnei Ayish, was found killed in his apartment near Gedera. Near the body was a leaflet of the DFLP "Red Star", explaining that the murder was carried out in revenge for the shooting of one of its members by an Israeli citizen. The Israeli acted in self-defense.
Apr 06, 1994 - Eight people were killed in a Hamas terrorist car-bomb attack on a bus in the center of Afula. This was the first documented car bombing in Israel.
Apr 07, 1994 - Yishai Gadassi, age 32, of Kvutzat Yavne, was shot and killed at a hitchhiking post at the Ashdod junction by a member of HAMAS. The terrorist was killed by bystanders at the scene.
Apr 13, 1994 - Five people, Rahamim Mazgauker, age 34, of Hadera; David Moyal, age 26 of Ramat Gan , an Egged mechanic; Daga Perda, age 44, immigrated from Ethiopia in 1991; Bilha Butin, age 49, of Hadera; Sgt. Ari Perlmutter, age 19, of Ir Ovot in the Arava were all killed when a Hamas terrorist detonated himself in a homicide bombing attack on a bus in the central bus station of Hadera.
Apr 21, 1994 - Officer cadet Shahar Simani , age 20, of Ashkelon, was found stabbed to death near the roadside at the village of Beit Hanina , north of Jerusalem . He had been kidnapped while hitchhiking in the south.
May 17, 1994 - Rafael Yairi (Klumfenbert), age 36, of Kiryat Arba and Margalit Ruth Shohat, age 48, of Ma'ale Levona were killed when their car was fired upon by by terrorists in a passing car near Beit Haggai, south of Hebron.
May 20, 1994 - Staff Sgt. Moshe Bukra, age 30 and Cpl. Erez Ben-Baruch, age 24 were shot dead by HAMAS terrorists at a roadblock one kilometer south of the Erez checkpoint in the Gaza Strip.
Aug 02, 1994 - Yoram Sakuri, age 30, of Kiryat Netafim in Samaria, was stabbed when a terrorist broke into his home on July 1st. He died of his wounds shortly thereafter.
July 07, 1994 - Sarit Prigal, age 17, was shot to death when terrorists opened fire from a passing car near the entrance to Kiryat Arba.
July 07, 1994 - Arye Frankenthal, age 20, of Moshav Gimzo had left his base in the south the previous day, his body was found stabbed and shot near the Arab village of Kafr Akab, near Ramallah.
July 17, 1994 - Sgt.-Maj. Jacques Attias, age 24, working as a border policeman, was shot by Palestinian policemen during the riots at Erez checkpoint on July 17. He died of his wounds a few days later.
July 19, 1994 - Lt. Guy Ovadia, age 23, of Kibbutz Yotvata, was fatally wounded in an ambush near Rafiah. HAMAS took responsibility for the attack, saying it was "a response to the massacre at the Erez checkpoint".
July 23, 1994 - Two Palestinian terrorists stabbed an American woman in the Old City of Jerusalem.
July 26, 1994 - A car bomb exploded at the Israel Embassy in London, wounding 14 people.
Aug 14, 1994 - Ron Soval, age 18, of Lehavim, north of Beersheba was shot to death in an ambush near Kissufim junction in the Gaza Strip. HAMAS claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 26, 1994 - Shlomo Kapach, age 22, and Gil Revah, age 21, both elevator technicians from Bat Yam, were killed at a Ramle building site. Their killers are known but protected by the Palestinian Authority, who refuse extradition to Israel.
Sept 04, 1994 - Sgt. Victor Shichman, age 24, was killed at the Morag junction in the southern Gaza Strip while on patrol, from shots fired from a vehicle bearing Palestinian license plates.
Sept 1994 - Natasha Ivanov, age 32, of Ashdod was strangled to death. In March 2001, a Palestinian arrested for being in Israel illegally, admitted to carrying out the murder in order to gain acceptance into a terrorist organization.
Oct 09, 1994 -Ma'ayan Levy, age 19, an off-duty soldier from Zayit and Samir Mugrabi, age 35, a civilian from Kafr Aka were killed in a terrorist attack in the Nahalat Shiva section of downtown Jerusalem . HAMAS claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 14, 1994 - Cpl. Nahshon Wachsman, age 20 was first abducted by HAMAS, and then killed by his captors.
Oct 14, 1994 - Capt. Nir Poraz, age 23, was killed in the course of the unsuccessful IDF rescue operation to obtain his release.
Oct 19, 1994 – When a terrorist detonated himself on the No. 5 bus on Dizengoff Street in Tel-Aviv, 21 Israelis and one Dutch national were killed.
Nov 11, 1994 - Three soldiers were killed at the Netzarim junction in the Gaza Strip when a Palestinian terrorist riding a bicycle detonated explosives strapped to his body. Islamic Jihad said it carried out the attack to avenge the car bomb killing of Islamic Jihad leader Hani Abed on Nov 2.
Nov 19, 1994 - Sgt.-Maj. Gil Dadon, age 26, of Bat Yam, was killed at the army post at Netzarim junction by shots fired from a passing car. HAMAS claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 27, 1994 - Rabbi Amiran Olami, age 34, of Otniel was killed near Beit Hagai 10 kms south of Hebron by shots fired from a passing car.
Nov 30, 1994 - Sgt. Liat Gabai, age 19, of Afula, was axed to death in the center of Afula.
Jan 06, 1995 - Ofra Felix, age 20, of Beit El, a university student, killed when terrorists opened fire on her car north of Beit El.
Jan 22, 1995 - Two consecutive terrorist bombs exploded at the Beit Lid junction near Netanya, killing 18 soldiers and one civilian. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 06, 1995 - Yevgeny Gromov, age 32, of Ashkelon, was killed while working as a security guard when terrorists opened fire from a passing car on the Gaza bypass road between Jabalya and Gaza City as he was escorting a gasoline truck to a Gaza Strip filling station.
Feb 13, 1995 - Rafael Cohen, age 35, of Jerusalem, a taxi driver, was fatally stabbed on the Jerusalem-Ma'aleh Adumim road.
Mar 19, 1995 - Nahum Hoss, age 32, of Hebron and Yehuda Fartush, age 41, of Kiryat Arba were killed when terrorists fired on an Egged bus near the entrance to Hebron.
Mar 29, 1995 - Police Insp. Nitzan Cohen, age 22, of Jerusalem and Sgt.-Maj. Jamal Suwitat, of Makr village were killed when a Palestinian driver rammed his truck into their jeep in a convoy east of the Netzarim junction in Gaza.
Apr 09, 1995 - Seven Israelis and one American were killed when a bus was hit by a terrorist’s explosives-laden van near Kfar Darom in the Gaza Strip. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Apr 13, 1995 - A Hamas suicide bomber blew himself up at the Hadera Central Bus Station, killing 5 and injuring 30.
Jul 18, 1995 - Ohad Bachrach, age 18, of Beit El and Ori Shahor, age 20, of Ra'anana were killed while hiking in Wadi Kelt.
Jul 24, 1995 - Six civilians were killed when a terrorist detonated himself in an attack on a bus in Ramat Gan.
Aug 21, 1995 - Three Israelis and one American were killed when a terrorist detonated himself in an attack on a Jerusalem bus.
Sept 5, 1995 - Daniel Frei, age 28, of Ma'aleh Michmash was stabbed to death when a terrorist broke into his home at night.
Jan 16, 1996 - Sgt. Yaniv Shimel, and Major Oz Tibon, both from Jerusalem, were killed when terrorists fired on their car on the Hebron-Jerusalem road.
Jan 30,1996 -Staff Sgt. Ehud Tal, age 21, of Kibbutz Maoz Haim, was stabbed to death at the liaison office in an army camp south of Jenin.
Feb 25, 1996 – When a Hamas terrorist detonated himself in an attack on a bus No. 18 near the Central Bus Station in Jerusalem, 26 were killed (17 civilians and 9 soldiers).
Feb 25, 1996 - Sgt. Hofit Ayyash, age 20, of Ashdod, was killed in an explosion when a Hamas terrorist detonated himself in an attack at a hitchhiking post outside Ashkelon.
Feb 26, 1996 - Flora Yehiel, age 28, of Kiryat Ata, was killed when a car was driven into a bus stop at the French Hill junction in Jerusalem.
Mar 03, 1996 - In a homicide bombing of bus No. 18 on Jaffa Road in Jerusalem, 19 were killed (16 civilians and 3 soldiers).
Mar 04, 1996 - Outside Dizengoff Center in Tel-Aviv, a homicide bomber detonated a 20-kilogram nail bomb, killing 13 (12 civilians and one soldier).
May 14, 1996 - David Reuven Boim, age 17, a yeshiva high school student in Beit El, was killed when terrorists fired at students at a hitchhiking post at Beil El, near Ramallah.
June 09, 1996 - Yaron Unger, age 26, and Efrat Unger, age 25, both from Kiryat Arba, were killed when terrorists fired on their car near Beit Shemesh.
June 16, 1996 - First-Sgt. Meir Alush, age 40, an off-duty policeman, was shot and killed in a toy store in the village of Bidiya.
June 26, 1996 - Staff Sgt. (Res.) Asher Berdugo, age 22, of Kiryat Bialik, Sgt. Ashraf Shibli, age 20, of Shibli and Cpl. (Res.) Ya'acov Turgeman, age unknown, of Rishon Lezion, were killed in an ambush along the Jordan River north of Jericho by terrorists who infiltrated from Jordan.
July 26, 1996 - Uri Munk, age 53, of Moshav Mevo Betar and Rachel Munk, age 24, of Moshav Mevo Betar, (Munk’s daughter-in-law) were killed in a drive-by shooting attack near Beit Shemesh. Ze'ev Munk, age 30, of Moshav Mevo Betar, (Rachel's husband) was critically wounded and died in the hospital the following week.
Dec 11, 1996 - Etta Tzur, 48, and her son, Ephraim Tzur, 12, were killed when their car was shot at by terrorists near Surda, west of Beit El.
Mar 21, 1997 - Three people were killed when a homicide bomber detonated a bomb on the terrace of a Tel Aviv cafe. 48 people were wounded.
Apr 10, 1997 - IDF Staff-Sgt. Sharon Edri's body, missing for seven months, was found buried near the West Bank village of Kfar Tzurif . Edri had been kidnapped and killed by a Hamas terrorist cell in September 1996 while hitchhiking to his home in Moshav Zanoah.
April 25, 1997 - Hagit Zavitzky, age 23, of Kfar Adumim and Liat Kastiel, age 23, of Holon were found stabbed to death in Wadi Kelt nature reserve.
July 20, 1997 - An Arab attacked two Israelis with an iron rod in Rishon L'Tzion. One of the Israelis later died of his wounds.
July 22, 1997 - An Israeli Arab tried to run down a group of tourists from England and Canada in Jaffa and then attacked them with a knife. Eleven tourists were wounded.
Jul 30, 1997 - 16 people were killed and 178 wounded in two consecutive homicide bombings in the Mahane Yehuda market in Jerusalem.
Sep 04, 1997 - Five people were killed and 181 wounded in three homicide bombings on the Ben-Yehuda pedestrian mall in Jerusalem.
Nov 19, 1997 - Gabriel Hirschberg, age 26, was killed by automatic gunfire in the Old City of Jerusalem.
Dec 31, 1997 - Yael Meivar, age 25 was shot near the settlement of Alei Zahav in Samaria. He died of his wounds on January 6, 1998.
Feb 11, 1998 - David Ktorza, age 40, of Jerusalem, was stabbed to death near his home.
Apr 19, 1998 - Dov Driben, age 28, of Maon, an American-Israeli farmer, was murdered by Arab terrorists near the Israeli town of Maon in the Hevron Hills.
May 06, 1998 - Haim Kerman, age 28, a student at the Atert Cohanim Yeshiva, was stabbed to death in the Old City of Jerusalem.
Aug 05, 1998 - Harel Bin-Nun, age 18 and Shlomo Liebman, age 24, were shot and killed in an ambush by terrorists while on patrol at the Yizhar settlement in Samaria .
Aug 20, 1998 - Rabbi Shlomo Ra'anan, age 63, was stabbed to death in the bedroom of his caravan in Hebron. The terrorist escaped after detonating a fire bomb inside the home.
Aug 27, 1998 - Twelve people were wounded by a bomb detonated in front of the Tel Aviv Great Synagogue.
Sept 24, 1998 - One Israeli was wounded by bomb explosion at a public bus stop near the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.
Sept 30, 1998 - During Yom Kippur, fourteen IDF soldiers and eleven Arabs were wounded by two grenades thrown in Hebron.
Oct 09, 1998 - Michal Adato, age 19, an IDF soldier, was stabbed to death at Moshav Tomer in the Jordan Valley.
Oct 14, 1998 - Itamar Doron, age 24, Itamar was shot to death while swimming in a spring near Moshav Ora, outside Jerusalem.
Oct 19, 1998 - 59 people are wounded when a Hamas terrorist hurled two grenades into a crowd at the Central bus station before running from the scene.
Oct 26, 1998 - Danny Vargas, age 29, of Kiryat Arba, was shot to death in Hebron.
Oct 29, 1998 - Sergeant Alexey Neykov, age 19, One Israeli soldier was killed when a terrorist drove an explosives-laden car into an Israeli army jeep escorting a bus with 40 elementary school students from the settlement of Kfar Darom in the Gaza Strip.
Jan 13, 1999 - Sergeant Yehoshua Gavriel, 25, of Ashdod, was killed when terrorists opened fire at the Othniel junction near Hebron.
Aug 03, 1999 - Baruch Ben-Yaakov and Ephraim Rosenstein were wounded by terrorists near Hevron.
Aug 07, 1999 - The body of an Israeli, shot in the head, was found in a burned vehicle.
Aug 10, 1999 - Eitan Vaknin, of Dotan, was wounded in an ambush while driving home and hospitalized in Afula. The terrorists escaped into the area controlled by the Palestinian Authority.
Aug 15, 1999 - A Hamas bomb attack in an office building in Netanya injured about 20.
Aug 30, 1999 - Yehiel Finfeter, 25, of Kiryat Motzkin, and Sharon Steinmetz, 21, of Haifa, were murdered while hiking in the Megiddo region
Sept 5, 1999 - Two civilians were wounded when a car bomb exploded in Tiberias.
Oct 30, 1999 - Five Israelis were wounded by terrorist gunfire directed at a bus three kilometers from the Tarkumiya Checkpoint in the Hevron Hills area.
Nov 07, 1999 - 30 Israelis (28 civilians and 2 soldiers) were wounded when three bombs placed in garbage receptacles at the intersection of Herzl and Shar Haggai Streets in Natanya.
Feb 09, 2000 - Dov Weiss, of Givat Ze’ev and Gabriella Weiss, (Dov’s wife) were bludgeoned to death by terrorists in their home.
Feb 27, 2000 - Gadi Rejwan, of Jerusalem was shot to death by one of the Arab workers in his factory located in the Atarot Industrial Park in Jerusalem.
Apr 27, 2000 - Efrat Lesser, age 17, resident of Elon Moreh was shot by terrorists and suffered a head wound.
May 07, 2000 - Yaakov Manzor, aged 9 and his brother, Yitzhak Manzor, aged 17, were stabbed repeatedly in the chest and abdomen in Jerusalem.
May 21, 2000 - Shalev Shabbat, aged 2, was critically burned and the child’s mother Segal Egozi was injured in a firebomb attack in Jericho.
June 20, 2000 - A roadside bomb was detonated as a vehicles passed on the Netzarim/Karnei Road in the Gaza Strip. One person was wounded.
July 23, 2000 - Arabs attacked and stabbed a Jerusalem municipality inspector near the Damascus Gate.
Sep 27, 2000 - Sgt. David Biri, 19, of Jerusalem, was fatally wounded in a bombing near Netzarim in the Gaza Strip.
Sep 29, 2000 - Border Police Supt. Yossi Tabaja, 27, of Ramle was shot to death by his Palestinian terrorist counterpart on a joint patrol near Kalkilya.
Oct 01, 2000 - Border Police Cpl. Yosef Madhat, 19, of Beit Jann, died of gunshot wounds sustained in a gun battle with Palestinian terrorists at Joseph's Tomb in Nablus.
Oct 02, 2000 - Wichlav Zalsevsky, 24, of Ashdod, was shot in the head in the village of Masha on the trans-Samaria highway.
Oct 02, 2000 - Sgt. Max Hazan, 20, of Dimona, died of gunshot injuries sustained near Beit Sahur.
Oct 08, 2000 - The bullet-riddled body of Hillel Lieberman, 36, of Elon Moreh was found at the southern entrance to Nablus.
Oct 12, 2000 - First Cpl. Yosef Avrahami and First Sgt. Vadim Novesche, 33, two reserve IDF soldiers, were lynched by a Palestinian terrorist mob at the police building in Ramallah.
Oct 19, 2000 - Rabbi Binyamin Herling, 64, of Kedumim, was killed when Fatah members and Palestinian terrorist security forces opened fire on a group of Israeli men, women, and children on a trip at Mount Ebal near Nablus.
Oct 28, 2000 - The body of Marik Gavrilov, 25, of Bnei Aysh was found inside his burned-out car, between the village of Bitunia and Ramallah.
Oct 30, 2000 - Eish-Kodesh Gilmor, 25, of Mevo Modi'in, was shot and killed while on duty as a security guard at the National Insurance Institute's East Jerusalem branch. Another guard was injured.
Oct 30, 2000 -Amos Machlouf, 30, of the Gilo neighborhood in Jerusalem, was found murdered in a ravine near Beit Jala.
Nov 01, 2000 - Lt. David-Hen Cohen, 21, of Karmiel and Sgt. Shlomo Adshina, 20, of Kibbutz Ze'elim were killed in a shooting incident in the Al-Hader area, near Bethlehem.
Nov 01, 2000 - Maj. (res.) Amir Zohar, 34, of Jerusalem was killed in the Nahal Elisha settlement in the Jordan Valley while on active reserve duty.
Nov 02, 2000 - Ayelet Shahar Levy, 28, and Hanan Levy, 33, were killed in a car bomb explosion near the Mahane Yehuda market in Jerusalem. 10 people were injured. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 08, 2000 - Noa Dahan, 25, of Moshav Mivtahim in the south, was shot to death while driving to her job at the Rafah border crossing in Gaza.
Nov 10, 2000 - Sgt. Shahar Vekret, 20, of Lod was fatally shot by a Palestinian terrorist sniper near Rachel's Tomb at the entrance to Bethlehem.
Nov 11, 2000 - Sgt. 1st Class Avner Shalom, 28, of Eilat, was killed in a shooting attack at the Gush Katif junction in the Gaza Strip.
Nov 13, 2000 - Sarah Leisha, 42, of Neveh Tzuf was killed by gunfire from a passing car while traveling near Ofra, north of Ramallah.
Nov 13, 2000 - Cpl. Elad Wallenstein, 18, of Ashkelon, and Cpl. Amit Zanna, 19, of Netanya were killed by gunfire from a car passing the military bus carrying them near Ofra.
Nov 13, 2000 - Gabi Zaghouri, 36, of Netivot was killed by gunfire directed at the truck he was driving near the Kissufim junction in the southern part of the Gaza Strip.
Nov 18, 2000 - St.-Sgt. Baruch (Snir) Flum, 21, of Tel-Aviv was shot and killed by a senior Palestinian terrorist Preventive Security Service officer who infiltrated the Kfar Darom greenhouses in the Gaza Strip. St.-Sgt. Sharon Shitoubi, 21, of Ramle, wounded in the Palestinian shooting attack in Kfar Darom, died of his wounds on Nov 20.
Nov 20, 2000 - A roadside bomb exploded at 7:30 in the morning alongside a bus carrying children from Kfar Darom to school in Gush Katif. Miriam Amitai, 35, and Gavriel Biton, 34, were killed and 9 others, including 5 children, were injured, 5 of them seriously.
Nov 21, 2000 - Itamar Yefet, 18, of Netzer Hazani died from a gunshot wound to the head by Palestinian terrorist sniper fire at the Gush Katif junction.
Nov 22, 2000 - Shoshanna Reis, 21, of Hadera, and Meir Bahrame, 35, of Givat Olga, were killed, and 60 wounded when a powerful car bomb was detonated alongside a passing bus on Hadera's main street, when the area was packed with shoppers and people driving home from work.
Nov 23, 2000 - Lt. Edward Matchnik, 21, of Beersheba, was killed in an explosion at the District Coordination Office near Gush Katif in the Gaza Strip. (The joint DCOs were established at the borders of Palestinian terrorist-ruled areas under the interim peace accords and were responsible for coordinating security and humanitarian cooperation.)
Nov 23, 2000 - Sgt. Samar Hussein, 19, of Hurfeish, was killed when Palestinian terrorist snipers opened fire at soldiers patrolling the border fence near the Erez crossing.
Nov 24, 2000 - Maj. Sharon Arameh, 25, of Ashkelon was killed by Palestinian terrorist sniper fire in fighting near Neve Dekalim in the Gaza Strip.
Nov 24, 2000 - Ariel Jeraffi, 40, of Petah Tikva, a civilian employed by the IDF, was killed by Palestinian terrorist fire as he travelled near Otzarin in the West Bank.
Dec 8, 2000 - Rina Didovsky, 39, a Beit Hagai school teacher on her way to work, and Eliyahu Ben-Ami, 41, of Otniel, the driver of the van, were killed when a car full of gunmen opened fire on the van near Kiryat Arba.
Dec 8, 2000 - Sgt. Tal Gordon, 19, was killed when gunmen in a passing car opened fire on an Egged bus traveling south from Tiberias to Jerusalem on the Jericho bypass road.
Dec 21, 2000 - Eliahu Cohen, 29, of Modi'in was shot and killed tonight by Palestinian terrorists waiting in ambush on the road between Givat Ze'ev and Beit Horon.
Dec 22, 2000 - Three soldiers were injured in a homicide bomb attack at the Mehola Junction roadside cafe in the northern Jordan Valley. The terrorist, who detonated a belt of explosives strapped to him, was killed in the blast.
Dec 28, 2000 - Capt. Gad Marasha, 30, of Kiryat Arba and Border Police Sgt.-Maj. Yonatan Vermullen, 29, of Ben-Shemen, were killed when called to dismantle a road-side bomb near the Sufa crossing in the Gaza Strip. The bomb was dismantled, but another bomb exploded, killing both and injuring two other soldiers. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 31, 2000 - Binyamin Zeev Kahane, the son of the late right-wing leader Meir Kahane, and his wife, Talia, were killed when Palestinian terrorist snipers opened fire while they were driving on the Ramallah bypass road. Five of their children, aged two months to 10 years, were injured.
Jan 01, 2001 - A car bomb exploded near a bus stop in the shopping district in the center of Netanya. About 60 people were injured, most lightly. One unidentified person, apparently one of the terrorists involved in the bombing, died of severe burns. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 05, 2001 - The body of Mordechai Cohen, 34, of Hadera was found in the Caesarea industrial area.
Jan 14, 2001 - The bullet-ridden body of Ron Tzalah, 32, of Kfar Yam in Gush Katif, apparently killed on Sunday night (Jan 14), was found the following morning near the Kfar Yam hothouses.
Jan 17, 2001 - Ofir Rahum, 16, of Ashkelon, traveled to Jerusalem to meet a young woman with whom he had conducted a relationship over the Internet. She then drove him toward Ramallah. At a prearranged location, another vehicle drove up and three Palestinian terrorist gunmen inside shot Rahum more than 15 times. One terrorist drove off with Rahum's body and dumped it, while the others fled in the second vehicle.
Jan 23, 2001 - Motti Dayan, 27, and Etgar Zeituny, 34, cousins from Tel Aviv, were abducted from a restaurant in Tulkarem by masked Palestinian terrorist gunmen and executed.
Jan 25, 2001 - Akiva Pashkos, 45, of Jerusalem, was shot dead in a terror attack near the Atarot industrial zone north of Jerusalem.
Jan 29, 2001 - Arye Hershkowitz, 55, of Ofra, was killed by shots fired from a passing car near the Rama junction north of Jerusalem.
Feb 01, 2001 - Dr. Shmuel Gillis, 42, of Carmei Tzur, was killed by Palestinian terrorist gunmen who fired at his car near the Aroub refugee camp on the Jerusalem-Hebron highway.
Feb 01, 2001 - Lior Attiah, 23, of Afula was shot to death by terrorists while traveling near Jenin.
Feb 05, 2001 - St.-Sgt. Rujayah Salameh, 23, was killed by sniper fire near Rafah.
Feb 08, 2001 - A powerful car bomb exploded at 4:40 PM in the ultra-Orthodox neighborhood of Beit Yisrael in Jerusalem, causing mild injuries to four people.
Feb 11, 2001 - Tzachi Sasson, 35, of Kibbutz Rosh Tzurim in Gush Etzion, was shot and killed by Palestinian terrorist gunmen as he drove home from Jerusalem.
Feb 14, 2001 - Eight people were killed and 25 injured when a bus driven by a Palestinian terrorist plowed into a group of soldiers and civilians waiting at a bus stop near Holon, south of Tel-Aviv.
Feb 26, 2001 - The body of Mordechai Shefer, 55, of Kfar Sava, was found in an olive grove near Moshav Hagor. An autopsy revealed that he was murdered. Investigators suspect terrorist motives.
Mar 01, 2001 - One person was killed and 9 injured when a terrorist detonated a bomb in a Tel Aviv to Tiberias service taxi at the Mei Ami junction in Wadi Ara.
Mar 04, 2001 - Three people were killed and at least 60 injured in a homicide bombing in downtown Netanya.
Mar 19, 2001 - Baruch Cohen, 59, of Efrat, was killed by shots fired at his car while driving to work in Jerusalem from his home in the Gush Etzion area. After being hit by bullets, he lost control of the car and collided with an oncoming truck.
Mar 26, 2001 - Shalhevet Pass, age 10 months, was killed by sniper fire at the entrance to the Avraham Avinu neighborhood in Hebron.
Mar 27, 2001 - A car bomb exploded at 7:40 in the morning in the Talpiot industrial/commercial zone in Jerusalem. Seven people were injured, one moderately. The Islamic Jihad has claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 27, 2001 - 28 people were injured, two seriously, in a homicide bombing directed against a northbound No. 6 bus at the French Hill junction in Jerusalem. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 28, 2001 - Two teenagers were killed and four injured, one critically, in a homicide bombing at the Mifgash Hashalom ("peace stop") gas station several hundred meters from an IDF roadblock near the entrance to Kalkilya, east of Kfar Saba. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Apr 01, 2001 - Staff Sgt. Ya'akov Krenschel, 23, of Nahariya, an IDF reserve soldier, was killed in a firefight between army and Palestinian terrorist forces southeast of Nablus.
Apr 01, 2001 - Dina Guetta, 42, of Haifa, was stabbed to death on Ha'atzmaut Street. Her murder was the initiation rite into a terrorist cell apprehended in Jul.
Apr 02, 2001 - Sgt. Danny Darai, 20, of Arad, was killed by a Palestinian terrorist sniper after completing guard duty at Rachel's Tomb at the entrance to Bethlehem.
Apr 21, 2001 - The mutilated body of Stanislav Sandomirsky, 38, of Beit Shemesh, was found in the trunk of his car near a village north of Ramallah late last night. Terrorist motives are suspected.
Apr 22, 2001 - A terrorist detonated a powerful bomb he was carrying near a group of people waiting at a bus stop on the corner of Weizman and Tchernichovsky streets in Kfar Sava. One person was killed and about 60 injured in the blast, two severely. The terrorist was also killed in the explosion, for which Hamas claimed responsibility.
Apr 23, 2001 - Eight people were lightly hurt in a car bombing in Or Yehuda, a few kilometers north of Ben-Gurion Airport, which senior police officers said could only be described as a "miracle" in an area packed with pre-Independence Day shoppers.
Apr 28, 2001 - Sgt. Shlomo Elmakias, 20, of Netanya, was killed and four women passengers wounded in a drive-by terrorist shooting attack on the Wadi Ara highway in the Galilee.
Apr 28, 2001 - Simcha Ron, 60, of Nahariya, was found stabbed to death in Kfar Ba'aneh, near Carmiel in the Galilee. The terrorists responsible for the attack were apprehended in Jul.
Apr 29, 2001 - A car bomb blew up close to a school bus traveling near the West Bank city of Nablus. There were no injuries in the attack. The body of the homicide bomber was found in the car. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 01, 2001 - Assaf Hershkowitz, 30, of Ofra, was killed when his vehicle was fired upon and overturned at a junction between Ofra and Beit El.
May 08, 2001 - Arnaldo Agranionic, 48, was murdered by terrorists as he guarded the Binyamin Farm, a lonely outpost where he lived, on an isolated hilltop east of Itamar in Samaria.
May 09, 2001 - Yossi Ish-Ran, 14, and Kobi Mandell, 14, both of Tekoa, were found stoned to death in a cave about 200 meters from the small community south of Jerusalem where they lived.
May 10, 2001 - Constantin Straturula, 52, and Virgil Martinesc, 29, two Romanian citizens employed by an Israeli contractor, were killed in a bomb attack while repairing a vandalized fence at the Kissufim Crossing into the Gaza District.
May 15, 2001 - Idit Mizrahi, 20, of Rimonim, was fatally shot in a terrorist ambush as she drove with her father and brother on the Alon Highway to attend a family wedding. Terrorists fired 30 bullets, 19 of which hit the family's car.
May 18, 2001 - Lt. Yair Nebenzahl, 22, of Neve Tzuf (Halamish), was killed and his mother seriously wounded, in a Palestinian terrorist roadside ambush north of Jerusalem.
May 18, 2001 - A Palestinian terrorist homicide bomber wearing an explosive vest detonated himself outside the Hasharon Shopping Mall in the seaside city of Netanya. Five civilians were killed and over 100 wounded in the attack. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 23, 2001 - Asher Iluz, 33, of Modi'in was killed outside Ariel en route to supervise a road paving in the area, when Palestinian terrorist gunmen opened fire in an ambush.
May 25, 2001 - 65 people were injured in a car bombing in the Hadera central bus station. The two terrorists were apparently killed in the explosion. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility.
May 25, 2001 - The burnt body of Yosef Alfasi, 50, of Rishon Letzion, was discovered near the West Bank city of Tulkarem.
May 27, 2001 - A car bomb exploded in the center of Jerusalem shortly after midnight. There were no injuries. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine claimed responsibility.
May 27, 2001 -A bomb exploded at 9:00 in the morning near the intersection of the capital's main Jaffa Road and Heshin Street. The bomb included several mortar shells, some of which were propelled hundreds of meters from the site of the explosion. 30 people were injured, most suffering from shock. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility.
May 29, 2001 - Gilad Zar, 41, of Itamar, was shot dead in a terrorist ambush while driving in the West Bank between Kedumim and Yizhar. The Fatah Tanzim claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 29, 2001 - Sara Blaustein, 53, and Esther Alvan, 20, of Efrat, were killed in a drive-by shooting near Neve Daniel in the Gush Etzion bloc south of Jerusalem. The Fatah Tanzim claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 30, 2001 - A car bomb exploded shortly before 16:00 outside a school in Netanya while a number of students were still in the building studying for matriculation exams. Eight people were injured, suffering from shock and hearing impairment. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility.
May 31, 2001 - Zvi Shelef, 63, of Mevo Dotan, was killed in a drive-by shooting attack in northern Samaria north of Tulkarem. He was shot in the head and died en route to hospital.
Jun 01, 2001 - 21 people were killed and 120 wounded when a homicide bomber blew himself up outside a disco near Tel Aviv's Dolphinarium along the seafront promenade just before midnight on Friday, Jun 01, while standing in a large group of teenagers waiting to enter the disco.
Jun 11, 2001 - Yehuda Shoham, aged 5 months, of Shilo, died of injuries incurred in a fatal stoning on Jun 5. He was critically injured by a rock thrown at the family's car near Shilo in Samaria.
Jun 12, 2001 - Father Georgios Tsibouktzakis, 34, a Greek Orthodox monk from the St. George Monastery in Wadi Kelt in the Judean desert, was shot and killed while driving on the Jerusalem-Ma'ale Adumim road.
Jun 14, 2001 - Lt.Col. Yehuda Edri, 45, of Ma'ale Adumim was killed by a Palestinian terrorist informant for Israeli intelligence in a shooting attack on the Bethlehem bypass tunnel road connecting the Gush Etzion bloc with Jerusalem. One of his security guards was seriously injured.
Jun 18, 2001 - Dan Yehuda, 35, of Homesh was killed in a drive-by shooting attack between Homesh and Shavei Shomron, near Nablus. Alex Briskin, 17, was moderately injured.
Jun 18, 2001 - Doron Zisserman, 38, of Einav, was shot and killed in his car by sniper fire near the entrance to Einav, east of Tulkarem. Fatah claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 20, 2001 - Ilya Krivitz, 62, of Homesh in Samaria was shot and killed at close range in an ambush late Wednesday afternoon in the nearby Palestinian terrorist town of Silat a-Dahar.
Jun 22, 2001 - Sgt. Aviv Iszak, 19, of Kfar Saba, and Sgt. Ofir Kit, 19, of Jerusalem, were killed near Dugit in the Gaza Strip as a jeep with yellow Israeli license plates, supposedly stuck in the sand, blew up as they approached. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 28, 2001 - Ekaterina (Katya) Weintraub, 27, of Ganim in northern Samaria was killed and another woman injured late Thursday afternoon by shots fired at the two-car convoy on the Jenin bypass road.
Jul 02, 2001 - Aharon Obadyan, 41, of Zichron Ya'akov was shot and killed near Baka a-Sharkia, north of the West Bank city of Tulkarem and close to the 1967 Green Line border, after shopping at the local market.
Jul 02, 2001 - The body of Yair Har Sinai, 51, of Susiya in the Hebron hills, missing since Monday (Jul 2) was found early Tuesday morning shot in the head and chest.
Jul 02, 2001 - Two separate bombs exploded at about 8:20 Monday morning in cars in the Tel-Aviv suburb of Yehud. Six pedestrians were lightly injured. Police sources say the bombs were probably set by terrorists. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, a radical PLO faction, claimed responsibility.
Jul 04, 2001 - Eliahu Na'aman, 32, of Petah Tikva, was shot at point-blank range just inside the Green Line at Sueika, near Tulkarem.
Jul 09, 2001 - A Palestinian terrorist homicide bomber was killed in a car-bombing attack near the Kissufim crossing point in the southern Gaza Strip, causing no other casualties. Disaster was averted as the bomb exploded without hitting any other vehicles. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jul 09, 2001 - Capt. Shai Shalom Cohen, 22, of Pardes Hanna, was killed and another soldier was wounded when an explosive charge detonated beneath their jeep after leaving the Adoraim IDF base south of Hebron.
Jul 13, 2001 - Yehezkel (Hezi) Mualem, 49, father of four from Kiryat Arba, was shot and killed between Kiryat Arba and Hebron while protesting a shooting attack in the area the previous day.
Jul 14, 2001 - David Cohen, 28, of Betar Illit, died of injuries sustained in a drive-by shooting in Kiryat Arba on Jul 12.
Jul 16, 2001 - Cpl. Hanit Arami, 19, and St.Sgt. Avi Ben Harush, 20, both of Zichron Yaakov, were killed and 11 wounded - 3 seriously - when a bomb exploded in a homicide terrorist attack at a bus stop near the train station in Binyamina, halfway between Netanya and Haifa, at about 19:30 Monday evening. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jul 24, 2001 - The body of Yuri Gushchin, 18, of Jerusalem, brutally murdered, bearing stab and gunfire wounds, was found in Ramallah.
Jul 26, 2001 - Ronen Landau, 17, of Givat Ze'ev, was shot and killed by Palestinian terrorists while returning home from Jerusalem with his father.
Aug 05, 2001 - Tehiya Bloomberg, 40, of Karnei Shomron, mother of five and 5 months pregnant, was killed when Palestinian terrorist gunmen opened fire on the family vehicle between Alfei Menashe and Karnei Shomron. Three people were seriously wounded, including her husband, Shimon, and daughter, Tzippi, 14.
Aug 06, 2001 - Yitzhak Snir, 51, of Ra'anana, an Israeli diamond merchant, was shot dead in Amman, in the yard of the building where he kept a flat. His body was found the following morning.
Aug 07, 2001 - Wael Ghanem, 32, an Arab Israeli resident of Taibeh, was shot and killed by Palestinian terrorist assailants on the road near Kalkilya. Police believe he was murdered because of suspected collaboration with Israeli authorities.
Zohar Shurgi, 40, of Moshav Yafit in the Jordan Valley, was shot and killed by terrorists while driving home at night on the Trans-Samaria Highway.
Aug 08, 2001 - A homicide bomber was killed when he detonated his car bomb, lightly wounding one soldier, at a roadblock near the B'kaot moshav in the northern Jordan Valley shortly after 9:00. One soldier was lightly wounded.
Aug 09, 2001 - 15 people were killed, including 7 children, and about 130 injured in a homicide bombing at the Sbarro pizzeria on the corner of King George Street and Jaffa Road in the center of Jerusalem. Hamas and the Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 09, 2001 - Aliza Malka, 17, a boarding student at Kibbutz Merav, was killed by terrorists in a drive-by shooting at the entrance to the kibbutz in the Gilboa region, west of Beit She'an. Three teenage girls who were with her in the car were injured, one seriously
Aug 12, 2001 - 21 people were injured in a homicide bombing in the Wall Street Cafe in the center of Kiryat Motzkin at 17:30. The terrorist was killed. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 21, 2001 - A bomb placed under a car exploded at 14:15 near the Russian Compound in downtown Jerusalem; one woman was treated for shock. A second, very large unexploded bomb was discovered inside the car and dismantled.
Aug 25, 2001 - Maj. Gil Oz, 30, of Kfar Sava; St.-Sgt. Kobi Nir, 21, of Kfar Sava; and Sgt. Tzahi Grabli, 19 of Holon were killed and seven soldiers wounded when two Palestinian terrorists infiltrated an IDF base in Gush Katif in the Gaza Strip at about 3:00 AM Saturday morning. The attackers, members of the PLO Fatah faction and of the Palestinian terrorist security forces, were killed by IDF soldiers. The Democratic Front claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 25, 2001 - Sharon, 26, and Yaniv Ben-Shalom, 27, of Ofarim, were killed when Palestinian terrorist gunmen opened fire on their car as they were returning home on the Jerusalem-Modi'in on road Saturday night. Their children, aged one and two, were lightly wounded. Sharon's brother, Doron Sviri, 20, of Jerusalem was fatally wounded and died the following day.
Aug 26, 2001 - Dov Rosman, 58, of Netanya was killed in a shooting attack shortly before 17:00 on Sunday afternoon near the entrance to the village of Zaita, opposite Kibbutz Magal. Fatah claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 27, 2001 - Meir Lixenberg, 38, of Itamar, father of five, was shot and killed by Palestinian terrorists from a roadside ambush while traveling between the communities of Har Bracha and Itamar, south of Nablus.
Aug 29, 2001 - Oleg Sotnikov, 35, of Ashdod, a truck driver employed by Dor Energy, was killed in a terrorist shooting attack outside the Palestinian terrorist village of Kutchin, west of Nablus.
Aug 30, 2001 - Amos Tajouri, 60, of Modi'in, was shot in the head at point-blank range by a masked gunman in the Arab village of Na'alin, while dining at a restaurant owned by close friends.
Sep 04, 2001 - 20 people were injured when a homicide terrorist exploded a powerful charge on Hanevi'im Street near Bikur Holim hospital in central Jerusalem shortly before 8:00 AM. The terrorist, disguised as a Jew in ultra-orthodox clothing, aroused the suspicion of passersby due to the large backpack he was wearing. As two Border Police officers approached the man, he detonated his shrapnel-packed bomb. Both officers were wounded - one critically. The terrorist was killed in the blast. Hamas claimed responsibility.
Sep 06, 2001 - Lt. Erez Merhavi, 23, of Moshav Tarum was killed in an ambush shooting near Kibbutz Bahan, east of Hadera, while driving to a wedding. A female officer with him in the car was seriously injured. Fatah-Tanzim claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 09, 2001 - Three people were killed and some 90 injured, most lightly, in a homicide bombing near the Nahariya train station in northern Israel. The terrorist, killed in the blast, waited nearby until the train arrived from Tel-Aviv and people were exiting the station, and then exploded the bomb he was carrying. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 09, 2001 - A car bomb exploded at the Beit Lid junction near Netanya, injuring 17 people. One person killed in the explosion is believed to be the terrorist bomber.
Sep 11, 2001 - Border Policemen Sgt. Tzachi David, 19, of Tel-Aviv, and St.-Sgt. Andrei Zledkin, 26, of Carmiel, were killed just after midnight when Palestinian terrorist gunmen opened fire on the Ivtan Border Police base near Kibbutz Bachan in central Israel. A Fatah group claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 12, 2001 - Ruth Shua'i, 46, of Alfei Menashe, was traveling home around 19:30 PM when shots were fired from a passing vehicle near the village of Habla near Kalkilya. She sustained injuries to her head and stomach and died en route to Meir Hospital in Kfar Saba.
Sep 15, 2001 - Meir Weisshaus, 23, of Jerusalem, was fatally shot late Saturday night in a drive-by shooting on the Ramot-French Hill road in northern Jerusalem.
Sep 16, 2001 - Sgt. David Gordukal, 23, of Upper Nazareth, was killed in the exchange of fire on Saturday night in the south of Ramallah, during which five senior Palestinian terrorists were arrested and a number of Palestinian terrorist positions and a Force 17 camp were attacked.
Sep 20, 2001 - Sarit Amrani, 26, of Nokdim, was killed Thursday morning and her husband Shai was seriously wounded in a shooting attack near Tekoa, south of Bethlehem. The couple's three children who were traveling in the vehicle were not injured. Fatah claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 24, 2001 - Salit Sheetrit, 28, of Kibbutz Sde Eliyahu was killed by gunfire shortly after 6:30 near Shadmot Mehola on the Jordan Valley road. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 26, 2001 - Zvia Pinhas, 64, of Moshav Maor was stabbed to death in her home. The terrorist who carried out the attack, from Jenin, was arrested.
Oct 01, 2001 - A large car bomb exploded in the Talpiot neighborhood of Jerusalem. Several people were lightly injured.
Oct 02, 2001 - Cpl. Liron Harpaz, 19, of Alei Sinai, and Assaf Yitzhaki, 20, of Lod, were killed when a Palestinian terrorist cell infiltrated the northern Gaza District community of Alei Sinai, opening fire on residents and hurling grenades into homes. 15 others were wounded in the attack.
Oct 04, 2001 - Sgt. Tali Ben-Armon, 19, an off-duty woman soldier from Pardesia, Haim Ben-Ezra, 76, of Givat Hamoreh, and Sergei Freidin, 20, of Afula were killed when a Palestinian terrorist, dressed as an Israeli paratrooper, opened fire on Israeli civilians waiting at the central bus station in Afula. 13 other Israelis were wounded in the attack. Fatah claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 05, 2001 - Hananya Ben-Avraham, 46, of Elad was killed by Palestinian terrorists in a machine gun ambush near Avnei Hefetz in central Israel.
Oct 07, 2001 - Yair Mordechai, 43, of Kibbutz Sheluhot was killed when a Palestinian terrorist homicide terrorist affiliated with the Islamic Jihad detonated a large bomb strapped to his body near the entrance of the kibbutz in the Beit She'an Valley.
Oct 17, 2001 - Tourism Minister Rechavam Ze'evy, 75, was assassinated by two shots to the head outside his room at the Jerusalem Hyatt Hotel. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 18, 2001 - Lior Kaufman, 30, of Ramat Sharon was killed and two injured, one seriously, by shots fired by terrorists at their jeep in the Judean desert, near the Mar Saba monastery.
Oct 28, 2001 - St.-Sgt. Yaniv Levy, 22, of Zichron Yaakov was killed by Palestinian terrorists in a drive-by machine-gun ambush near Kibbutz Metzer in northern Israel. The Tanzim wing of Arafat's Fatah faction claimed responsibility for the murder.
Oct 28, 2001 - Ayala Levy, 39, of Elyachin; Smadar Levy, 23, of Hadera; Lydia Marko, 63, of Givat Ada; and Sima Menahem, 30, of Zichron Yaakov were killed when two Palestinian terrorists, members of the Palestinian terrorist police, armed with assault rifles and expanding bullets, opened fire from a vehicle on Israeli pedestrians at a crowded bus-stop in downtown Hadera. About 40 were wounded, three critically. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 02, 2001 - St.-Sgt. Raz Mintz, 19, of Kiryat Motzkin was killed by Palestinian terrorist gunmen 5:45 P.M. on Friday at an IDF roadblock at near Ofra, north of Ramallah. The Fatah-affiliated Al-Aksa Brigade claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 04, 2001 - Shoshana Ben Ishai, 16, of Betar Illit and Menashe (Meni) Regev, 14, of Jerusalem were killed when a Palestinian terrorist opened fire with a sub-machine gun shortly before 16:00 at a No. 25 Egged bus at the French Hill junction in northern Jerusalem. 45 people were injured in the attack.
Nov 06, 2001 - Capt. (Res.) Eyal Sela, 39, of Moshav Nir Banim, was shot dead in an ambush by three Palestinian terrorists on the southern Nablus bypass road.
Nov 9, 2001 - Hadas Abutbul, 39, of Mevo Dotan in northern Samaria was shot and killed by Palestinian terrorists on Friday afternoon as she drove from work in nearby Shaked.
Nov 11, 2001 - Aharon Ussishkin, 50, head of security at Moshav Kfar Hess, east of Netanya, was shot and killed at the entrance to the moshav on Sunday evening, after being summoned to investigate a suspicious person.
Nov 24, 2001 - St.-Sgt. Barak Madmon, 26, of Holon, an IDF reservist, was killed by a mortar shell that landed in the soccer field of Kfar Darom in Gush Katif, while on his way to take up guard duty. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 26, 2001 - A Palestinian terrorist homicide bomber blew himself up and lightly wounded two Border Policemen at the Erez crossing point in the Gaza Strip. The bomber joined workers waiting to be cleared for entry into Israel. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 27, 2001 - Noam Gozovsky, 23, of Moshav Ramat Zvi, and Michal Mor, 25, of Afula were killed when two Palestinian terrorists from the Jenin area opened fire with Kalashnikov assault rifles on a crowd of people near the central bus station in Afula. Police officers and a reserve soldier confronted them, killing the terrorists in the ensuing firefight. Another 50 people were injured, 10 of them moderately to seriously. Fatah and the Islamic Jihad claimed joint responsibility.
Nov 27, 2001 - Etty Fahima, 45, of Netzer Hazani was killed three others were injured when a Palestinian terrorist threw grenades and opened fire at a convoy on the road between the Kissufim crossing and Gush Katif in the Gaza Strip on Tuesday evening. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 29, 2001 - 1st Sgt. Yaron Pikholtz, 20, of Ramat Gan, was killed and a second soldier was injured in a drive-by shooting incident on the Green Line, near the West Bank village of Baka el-Sharkiya.
Nov 29, 2001 - Three people were killed and nine others were wounded in a homicide bombing on an Egged 823 bus en route from Nazereth to Tel Aviv near the city of Hadera. The Islamic Jihad and Fatah claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 01, 2001 - 11 people were killed and about 180 injured when explosive devices were detonated by two homicide bombers close to 11:30 P.M. Saturday night on Ben Yehuda Street, the pedestrian mall in the center of Jerusalem. A car bomb exploded nearby 20 minutes later. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 02, 2001 - 15 people were killed and 40 injured, several critically, in a homicide bombing on an Egged bus No. 16 in Haifa shortly after 12:00. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 02, 2001 - Prof. Baruch Singer, 51, of Gedera was killed when Palestinian terrorist gunmen opened fire on his car near the northern Gaza settlement of Elei Sinai. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 05, 2001 - A homicide bomber exploded a powerful bomb shortly after 7:30 AM on King David Street in Jerusalem. A number of people waiting at a nearby bus stop were lightly injured. The terrorist was killed in the blast. Police are investigating whether the bomb, packed with nails and shrapnel, went off prematurely. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility.
Dec 09, 2001 - A homicide bomber exploded a powerful bomb near a bus stop at the Checkpost Junction in Haifa shortly after 7:30 AM. About 30 people were injured, most lightly and suffering from shock. A second explosive device was found and detonated nearby. The terrorist was killed.
Dec 12, 2001 - Four people traveling in two cars were lightly wounded in an attack at 18:00 PM by two homicide bombers near the Gaza Strip community of Neve Dekalim.
Dec 12, 2001 - Yair Amar, 13, of Emmanuel; Esther Avraham, 42, of Emmanuel; Border Police Chief Warrant Officer Yoel Bienenfeld, 35, of Moshav Tel Shahar; Moshe Gutman, 40, of Emmanuel; Avraham Nahman Nitzani, 17, of Betar Illit; Yirmiyahu Salem, 48, of Emmanuel; Israel Sternberg, 46, of Emmanuel; David Tzarfati, 38, of Ginot Shomron; Hananya Tzarfati, 32, of Kfar Saba; Ya'akov Tzarfati, 64, of Kfar Saba were killed when three terrorists attacked a No. 189 Dan bus and several passenger cars with a roadside bomb, anti-tank grenades, and light arms fire near the entrance to Emmanuel in Samaria at 18:00 P.M. About 30 others were injured. Both Fatah and Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Haim Chiprot, 52, of Emmanuel, injured in the attack, died of his wounds on March 25, 2002.
Dec 17, 2001 - Zion Ohana, 45, of Adam was brutally murdered by three residents of Jaba in Samaria.
Dec 25, 2001 - Sgt. Michael Sitbon, 23, of Beit Shemesh, an IDF reserve soldier, was killed, and four other soldiers were injured, in a shooting attack Tuesday morning near the Jordanian border north of Beit She'an.
Jan 9, 2002 - Maj. Ashraf Hawash, 28, of Beit Zarzir; Sgt.-Maj. Ibrahim Hamadieh, 23, of Rehaniya; Sgt.-Maj. Hana (Eli) Abu-Ghanem, 25, of Haifa; and St.-Sgt. Mofid Sawaid, 25, of Abu Snan, four IDF soldiers of the Bedouin desert patrol unit, were killed and two injured when two armed Palestinian terrorists from the southern Gaza Strip, carrying explosive belts, assault rifles, grenades, and dressed in Palestinian terrorist Authority police uniforms, infiltrated into Israel at 04:30 this morning and attacked an IDF post near Kerem Shalom. The terrorists, one a member of the Palestinian terrorist Authority's naval force, and the second a Hamas operative, were killed. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 14, 2002 - Sgt. Elad Abu-Gani, 19, of Tiberias, was killed and an officer sustained gunshot wounds in a terrorist ambush near Kuchin, between Nablus and Tulkarm. Fatah claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 15, 2002 - Avraham (Avi) Boaz, 71, of Ma'aleh Adumim, an American citizen, was kidnapped at a PA security checkpoint in Beit Jala. His bullet-riddled body was found in a car in Beit Sahur, in the Bethlehem area. The Fatah's Al-Aksa Brigade claimed responsibility for the murder.
Jan 15, 2002 - Yoela Chen, 45, of Givat Ze'ev, was shot and killed by Palestinian terrorists near the gas station at the entrance to Givat Ze'ev shortly before 20:00. Her aunt who was with her in the car was injured. The Fatah's Al-Aqsa Brigade claimed responsibility for the murder.
Jan 16, 2002 - Shahada Dadis, 30, an Arab resident of Beit Hanina in East Jerusalem, was killed in a drive-by terrorist shooting. He was found dead in a car bearing Israeli license plates south of Jenin in the West Bank.
Jan 17, 2002 - Edward Bakshayev, 48, of Or Akiva; Anatoly Bakshayev, 63, of Or Akiva; Aharon Ben Yisrael-Ellis, 32, of Ra'anana; Dina Binayev, 48, of Ashkelon; Boris Melikhov, 56, of Sderot; and Avi Yazdi, 25, of Hadera were killed and 35 injured, several seriously, when a terrorist burst into a bat mitzva reception in a banquet hall in Hadera shortly before 23:00, opening fire with an M-16 assault rifle. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 22, 2002 - Sarah Hamburger, 79, and Svetlana Sandler, 56, both of Jerusalem, were killed and 40 were injured when a Palestinian terrorist opened fire with an M-16 assault rifle near a bus stop in downtown Jerusalem. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 25, 2002 - 25 people were wounded when a Palestinian terrorist homicide bomber detonated explosives outside a cafe on a pedestrian mall near Tel Aviv's old central bus station at 11:15 AM on Friday.
Jan 27, 2002 - Pinhas Tokatli, 81, of Jerusalem was killed and over 150 people were wounded, four seriously, in a homicide bombing on Jaffa Road, in the center of Jerusalem, shortly before 12:30. The female terrorist, identified as a Fatah member, was armed with more than 10 kilos of explosives.
Feb 06, 2002 - Miri Ohana, 45, and her daughter Yael, 11, were murdered in their home when an armed terrorist infiltrated Moshav Hamra, halfway between Jericho and Beit She'an in the Jordan Valley on Wednesday evening, opening fire. IDF reserve soldier, St.-Sgt. Maj.(res.) Moshe Majos Meconen, 33, of Beit She'an, was also killed in the attack. The terrorist, who entered the Ohana home disguised in IDF uniform, was killed by IDF forces. Both Fatah and Hamas claimed responsibility.
Feb 08, 2002 - Moranne Amit, 25, of Kibbutz Kfar Hanasi was stabbed to death by four Palestinian terrorists, aged 14 to 16, while strolling on the Sherover Promenade in Jerusalem's Armon Hanatziv neighborhood Friday afternoon.
Feb 09, 2002 - Atala Lipobsky, 78, of Ma'ale Ephraim was shot dead on Saturday night while driving on the Trans-Samaria Highway with her son. Palestinian terrorist gunmen opened fire on the car, apparently from an ambush, between Ariel and the Tapuah Junction.
Feb 10, 2002 - Lt. Keren Rothstein, 20, of Ashkelon and Cpl. Aya Malachi, 18, of Moshav Ein Habesor were killed in a drive-by terrorist shooting at the entrance to the IDF Southern Command base in Be'er Sheva. Four others were wounded, one critically. One of the terrorists was killed at the scene; the second, wearing an explosives belt, fled in the direction of a nearby school when he was shot and killed by a soldier and police officer. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 14, 2002 - St.-Sgt. Ron Lavie, 20, of Katzrin, St.-Sgt. Moshe Peled, 20, of Rehovot, and St.-Sgt. Asher Zaguri, 21, of Shlomi were killed and four soldiers injured when a powerful mine exploded under a IDF tank on the Karni-Netzarim road in the Gaza Strip Thursday night, following the detonation of a roadside bomb at a civilian convoy of cars and a bus.
Feb 15, 2002 - St.-Sgt. Lee Nahman Akunis, 20, of Holon, was shot and killed by gunmen on Friday night at a roadblock north of Ramallah. The Fatah's Al-Aksa Brigade claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 16, 2002 - Two teenagers were killed and about 30 people were wounded, six seriously, when a homicide bomber blew himself up on Saturday night at a pizzeria in the shopping mall in Karnei Shomron in Samaria. A third person subsequently died of his injuries. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 18, 2002 - Policeman Ahmed Mazarib, 32, of the Bedouin village Beit Zarzir in the Galilee, was killed by a homicide bomber whom he had stopped for questioning on the Ma'ale Adumim-Jerusalem road. The terrorist succeeded in detonating the bomb in his car. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 18, 2002 - Ahuva Amergi, 30, of Ganei Tal in Gush Katif was killed and a 60-year old man was injured when a Palestinian terrorist opened fire on her car. Maj. Mor Elraz, 25, of Kiryat Ata and St.-Sgt. Amir Mansouri, 21, of Kiryat Arba, who came to their assistance, were killed while trying to intercept the terrorist. The terrorist was killed when the explosives he was carrying were detonated. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 19, 2002 - Lt. Moshe Eini, 21, of Petah Tikva; St.-Sgt. Benny Kikis, 20, of Carmiel; St.-Sgt. Mark Podolsky, 20, of Tel Aviv; St.-Sgt. Erez Turgeman, 20, of Jerusalem; St.-Sgt. Tamir Atsmi, 21, of Kiryat Ono; and St.-Sgt. Michael Oxsman, 21, of Haifa were killed and one wounded in an attack near a roadblock west of Ramallah. Several terrorists opened fire at soldiers at the roadblock, including three off-duty soldiers inside a structure at the roadblock, killing them at point-blank range. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 21, 2002 - Minhal Dragma, 22, of Baka al-Garbiya, was killed when a terrorist opened fire at IDF soldiers at the entrance to Baka al-Sharkiya.
Feb 22, 2002 - Valery Ahmir, 59, of Beit Shemesh was killed by terrorists in a drive-by shooting on the Atarot-Givat Ze'ev road north of Jerusalem as he returned home from work. Fatah claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 25, 2002 - Avraham Fish, 65, and Aharon Gorov, 46, both of Nokdim, were killed in a terrorist shooting attack between Tekoa and Nokdim, south of Bethlehem. Fish's daughter, 9 months pregnant, was seriously injured but delivered a baby girl. The Fatah al-Aksa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 25, 2002 - Police officer 1st Sgt. Galit Arbiv, 21, of Nesher, died after being fatally shot, when a terrorist opened fire at a bus stop in the Neve Ya'akov residential neighborhood in northern Jerusalem. Eight others were injured, two seriously. The Fatah al-Aksa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 27, 2002 - Gad Rejwan, 34, of Jerusalem, was shot and killed early Wednesday morning by one of his Palestinian terrorist employees in a factory in the Atarot industrial area, north of Jerusalem. Two Fatah groups issued a joint statement taking responsibility for the murder.
Feb 27, 2002 - A Palestinian terrorist homicide bomber blew herself up at the Maccabim roadblock on the Jerusalem-Modi'in highway Wednesday night, injuring three policemen.
Feb 28, 2002 - IDF soldier St.-Sgt. Haim Bachar, 20, of Tel Aviv was killed during clashes with Palestinian terrorists in the Balata refugee camp near Nablus. IDF forces entered the camp to search for wanted terrorists.
Mar 01, 2002 - IDF soldier Sgt. Ya'acov Avni, 20, of Kiryat Ata was killed by Palestinian terrorist sniper fire in the Jenin refugee camp.
Mar 02, 2002 - The bullet-ridden body of Jerusalem police detective Chief-Supt. Moshe Dayan, 46, of Ma'aleh Adumim, was discovered next to his trail motorcycle, near the Mar Saba Monastery in the Judean Desert. Tanzim claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 02, 2002 - Ten people were killed and over 50 were injured, 4 critically, in a homicide bombing at 19:15 on Saturday evening near a yeshiva in the ultra-Orthodox Beit Yisrael neighborhood in the center of Jerusalem where people had gathered for a bar-mitzva celebration. The terrorist detonated the bomb next to a group of women waiting with their baby carriages for their husbands to leave the nearby synagogue. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade took responsibility for the attack.
Mar 03, 2002 - Ten Israelis - 7 soldiers and 3 civilians - were killed and 6 injured when a terrorist opened fire at an IDF roadblock near Ofra in Samaria: Capt. Ariel Hovav, 25, of Eli; Lt.(res.) David Damelin, 29, of Kibbutz Metzar; 1st Sgt.(res.) Rafael Levy, 42, of Rishon Lezion; Sgt.-Maj.(res.) Avraham Ezra, 38, of Kiryat Bialik; Sgt.-Maj.(res.) Eran Gad, 24, of Rishon Letzion; Sgt.-Maj.(res.) Yochai Porat, 26, of Kfar Sava; Sgt.-Maj.(res.) Kfir Weiss, 24, of Beit Shemesh; Sergei Birmov, 33, of Ariel; Vadim Balagula, 32, of Ariel; and Didi Yitzhak, 66, of Eli. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 03, 2002 - Sgt. Steven Kenigsberg, 19, of Hod Hasharon was killed and 4 soldiers injured when a Palestinian terrorist gunman opened fire near the Kissufim crossing in the Gaza Strip. The Islamic Jihad and Tanzim claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 05, 2002 - Maharatu Tagana, 85, of Upper Nazareth was killed and a large number of people injured, most lightly, when a homicide bomber exploded in an Egged No. 823 bus as it entered the Afula central bus station. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 05, 2002 - Police officer FSM Salim Barakat, 33, of Yarka; Yosef Habi, 52, of Herzliya; and Eli Dahan, 53, of Lod were killed and over 30 people were wounded in Tel-Aviv when a Palestinian terrorist opened fire on two adjacent restaurants shortly after 2:00 AM. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 05, 2002 - Devorah Friedman, 45, of Efrat, was killed and her husband injured in shooting attack on the Bethlehem bypass "tunnel road", south of Jerusalem. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 06, 2002 - 1st Lt. Pinhas Cohen, 23, of Jerusalem, was killed overnight near the southern Gaza town of Khan Yunis, in the course of anti-terrorist activity. Cpl.(res.) Alexander Nastarenko, 37, of Netanya was killed when Palestinian terrorist gunmen crossed the border fence and ambushed an army jeep on the patrol road near Kibbutz Nir Oz.
Mar 07, 2002 - Arik Krogliak of Beit El, Tal Kurtzweil of Bnei Brak, Asher Marcus of Jerusalem, Eran Picard of Jerusalem, and Ariel Zana of Jerusalem, all aged 18, were killed and 23 people were injured, four seriously, when a Palestinian terrorist gunman penetrated the pre-military training academy in the Gush Katif settlement of Atzmona. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 07, 2002 - A homicide bomber blew himself up in the lobby of a hotel in the commercial center on the outskirts of Ariel in Samaria. 15 people were injured, one seriously. The PFLP claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 8, 2002 - St.-Sgt. Edward Korol, 20, of Ashdod, was killed by a Palestinian terrorist sniper in Tulkarem.
Mar 9, 2002 - Avia Malka, 9 months, of South Africa, and Israel Yihye, 27, of Bnei Brak were killed and about 50 people were injured, several seriously, when two Palestinian terrorists opened fire and threw grenades at cars and pedestrians in the coastal city of Netanya on Saturday evening, close to the city's boardwalk and hotels. The terrorists were killed by Israeli border police. The Fatah Al Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 09, 2002 - 11 people were killed and 54 injured, 10 of them seriously, when a homicide bomber exploded at 22:30 PM Saturday night in the crowded Moment cafe at the corner of Aza and Ben-Maimon streets in the Rehavia neighborhood in the center of Jerusalem. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 10, 2002 - St.-Sgt. Kobi Eichelboim, 21, of Givatayim died Sunday afternoon from wounds suffered in the morning when a Palestinian terrorist gunman disguised as a worker opened fire at the entrance to Netzarim in the Gaza Strip.
Mar 12, 2002 - Eyal Lieberman, 42, of Tzoran was killed and another person was wounded in a shooting attack at the Kiryat Sefer checkpoint, east of Modi'in.
Mar 12, 2002 - Yehudit Cohen, 33, of Shlomi; Ofer Kanarick, 44, of Moshav Betzet; Alexei Kotman, 29, of Kibbutz Beit Hashita; Lynne Livne, 49, and her daughter Atara, 15, of Kibbutz Hanita; and Lt. German Rozhkov, 25, of Kiryat Shmona were killed when two terrorists opened fire from an ambush on Israeli vehicles traveling between Shlomi and Kibbutz Metzuba near the northern border with Lebanon. Seven others were injured. Israeli forces killed the two gunmen, who were dressed in IDF uniforms, and carried out wide-scale searches for additional terrorists.
Mar 13, 2002 - Lt. Gil Badihi, 21, of Nataf died of injuries suffered Wednesday morning in Ramallah. He was shot in the head by a Palestinian terrorist gunman as he stood next to his tank.
Mar 14, 2002 - St.-Sgt. Matan Biderman, 21, of Carmiel, St.-Sgt. Ala Hubeishi, 21, of Julis, and Sgt. Rotem Shani, 19, of Hod Hasharon were killed and two soldiers were injured early Thursday morning when a tank escorting a civilian convoy drove over a land mine exploded on the Karni-Netzarim road in the Gaza Strip. Terrorists hiding in a nearby mosque detonated the remote-controlled explosive charge beneath the armored vehicle. The Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine and the Fatah's al-Aksa Martyrs Brigade both claimed responsibility.
Mar 17, 2002 - A homicide bomber exploded himself near an Egged bus no. 22 at the French Hill junction in northern Jerusalem. 25 people were lightly injured.
Mar 17, 2002 - Noa Auerbach, 18, of Kfar Sava was killed and 16 people were injured when a terrorist opened fire on passersby in the center of Kfar Sava. The gunman was shot and killed by police.
Mar 19, 2002 - 1st Lt. Tal Zemach, 20, of Kibbutz Hulda, was killed and three soldiers were injured when Palestinian terrorists opened fire on them in the Jordan Valley. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack
Mar 20, 2002 - Seven people, four of them soldiers, were killed and about 30 wounded, several seriously, in a homicide bombing of an Egged bus No. 823 traveling from Tel Aviv to Nazareth at the Musmus junction on Highway 65 (Wadi Ara) near Afula. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 21, 2002 - Three people were killed and 86 injured, 3 of them seriously, in a homicide bombing on King George Street in the center of Jerusalem. The terrorist detonated the bomb, packed with metal spikes and nails, in the center of a crowd of shoppers. The Fatah al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 24, 2002 - Esther Kleiman, 23, of Neve Tzuf, was killed in a shooting attack northwest of Ramallah, while traveling to work in a reinforced Egged bus.
Mar 24, 2002 - Avi Sabag, 24, of Otniel was killed in a terrorist shooting south of Hebron.
Mar 26, 2002 - Major Cengiz Soytunc of Turkey and Catherine Berruex of Switzerland, members of the TIPH observer force in Hebron, were killed in an ambush shooting by a Palestinian terrorist gunman near Halhul.
Mar 27, 2002 - 29 people were killed and 140 injured - 20 seriously - in a homicide bombing in the Park Hotel in the coastal city of Netanya, in the midst of the Passover holiday seder with 250 guests. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack. The terrorist was a member of Hamas from Tulkarem, on the list of wanted terrorists Israel had requested be arrested.
Mar 28, 2002 - Rachel and David Gavish, 50, their son Avraham Gavish, 20, and Rachel's father Yitzhak Kanner, 83, were killed when a terrorist infiltrated the community of Elon Moreh in Samaria, entered their home and opened fire on its inhabitants. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 29, 2002 - Two people were killed and 28 injured, two seriously when a female homicide bomber blew herself up in the Kiryat Yovel supermarket in Jerusalem. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 29, 2002 - Tuvia Wisner, 79, of Petah Tikva and Michael Orlansky, 70, of Tel-Aviv were killed Friday morning, when a Palestinian terrorist infiltrated the Neztarim settlement in the Gaza Strip.
Mar 29, 2002 - Lt. Boaz Pomerantz, 22, of Kiryat Shmona and St.-Sgt. Roman Shliapstein, 22, of Ma'ale Efraim were killed in the course of the IDF anti-terrorist action in Ramallah (Operation Defensive Shield).
Mar 29, 2002 - Rachel Levy, 17, and Haim Smadar, 55, the security guard, both of Jerusalem, were killed and 28 people were injured, two seriously, when a female terrorist blew herself up in the Kiryat Yovel supermarket in Jerusalem. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 30, 2002 - Border Policeman Sgt.-Maj. Constantine Danilov, 23, of Or Akiva was shot and killed in Baka al-Garbiyeh, during an exchange of fire with two Palestinian terrorists trying to cross into Israel to carry out a terrorist attack. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility.
Mar 30, 2002 - One person was killed and about 30 people were injured in a homicide bombing in a cafe on the corner of Allenby and Bialik streets in Tel-Aviv. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 31, 2002 - An MDA paramedic was very seriously injured along with three other people at 17:00 Sunday afternoon in a homicide bombing at the emergency medical center in Efrat, in the Gush Etzion bloc south of Jerusalem.
Mar 31, 2002 - 15 people were killed and over 40 injured when a terrorist detonated himself in Haifa, in the Matza restaurant of the gas station near the Grand Canyon shopping mall. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Apr 01, 2002 - Sgt.-Maj. Ofir Roth, 22, of Gan Yoshiya, an IDF reserve soldier, was killed at a roadblock near Jerusalem's Har Homa neighborhood by a Palestinian terrorist sniper firing from Beit Sahur, near Bethlehem.
Apr 01, 2002 - Tomer Mordechai, 19, of Tel-Aviv, a policeman, was killed in Jerusalem, when a Palestinian terrorist driving toward the city center blew himself up after being stopped at a roadblock. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Apr 03, 2002 - IDF reservist Maj. Moshe Gerstner, 29, of Rishon Lezion was killed in Jenin during anti-terrorist action (Operation Defensive Shield).
Apr 04, 2002 - Rachel Charhi, 36, of Bat-Yam, critically injured when a terrorist detonated himself in a cafe on the corner of Allenby and Bialik streets in Tel-Aviv on March 30, died of her wounds. Some 30 others were injured in the attack. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility.
Apr 04, 2002 - Border Police Supt. Patrick Pereg, 30, of Rosh Ha'ayin, head of operations in an undercover unit, was killed Thursday while attempting to arrest a wanted member of Fatah's al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade.
Apr 04, 2002 - Sgt.-Maj.(res.) Einan Sharabi, 32, of Rehovot; Lt. Nissim Ben-David, 22, of Ashdod; and St.-Sgt. Gad Ezra, 23, of Bat-Yam were killed during the IDF anti-terrorist action in Jenin (Operation Defensive Shield).
Apr 05, 2002 - Sgt. Marom Moshe Fisher, 19, of Moshav Avigdor; Sgt. Ro'i Tal, 21, of Ma'alot; and Sgt. Oded Kornfein, 20, of Kibbutz Ha'on - were killed in exchanges of fire between IDF troops and Palestinian terrorist gunmen in Jenin (Operation Defensive Shield).
Apr 06, 2002 - St.-Sgt. Nisan Avraham, 26, of Lod was killed and five other soldiers were lightly injured when two Palestinian terrorist gunmen opened fire and threw grenades at the entrance to Rafiah Yam in the Gaza Strip. The Palestinian terrorists, members of the Islamic Jihad, were killed.
Apr 08, 2002 - St.-Sgt. Matanya Robinson, 21, of Kibbutz Tirat Zvi, and Sgt. Shmuel Weiss, 19, of Kiryat Arba were killed in an ambush by Palestinian terrorist gunfire in the Jenin refugee camp (Operation Defensive Shield).
Apr 09, 2002 - 13 IDF soldiers were killed and 7 injured in the Jenin refugee camp by Palestinian terrorists. An IDF patrol by reserve soldiers was ambushed during operations in the refugee camp. Explosive devices were detonated against them, as well as gunfire directed against the soldiers from the rooftops of the surrounding buildings.
Apr 09, 2002 - Maj. Assaf Assoulin, 30, of Tel Aviv was killed in an exchange of fire in Nablus.
Apr 09, 2002 - St.-Sgt. Gedalyahu Malik, 21, of Jerusalem was killed and 12 soldiers were injured in Jenin when an explosive charge was thrown at a patrol.
Apr 10, 2002 - Avinoam Alfia, 26, of Kiryat Ata; Sgt.-Maj.(res.) Shlomi Ben Haim, 27, of Kiryat Yam; Sgt.-Maj.(res.) Nir Danieli, 24, of Kiryat Ata; Border Police Lance Cpl. Keren Franco, 18, of Kiryat Yam; Sgt.-Maj.(res.) Ze'ev Hanik, 24, of Karmiel; Border Police Lance Cpl. Noa Shlomo, 18, of Nahariya; Prison Warrant Officer Shimshon Stelkol, 33, of Kiryat Yam; and Sgt. Michael Weissman, 21, of Kiryat Yam were killed and 22 people injured when a terrorist detonated himself on Egged bus #960, en route from Haifa to Jerusalem, which exploded near Kibbutz Yagur, east of Haifa. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Apr 12, 2002 - Lt. Dotan Nahtomi, 22, of Kibbutz Tzuba, died of wounds sustained earlier in the week during IDF operations in Dura (Operation Defensive Shield).
Apr 12, 2002 - Border policeman St.-Sgt. David Smirnoff, 22, of Ashdod was killed when a Palestinian terrorist gunman opened fire near the Erez crossing, in the Gaza Strip, killing one and injuring another four Israelis. The terrorist killed one and injured three Palestinian terrorist workers in the same shooting spree. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Apr 12, 2002 - Nissan Cohen, 57; Rivka Fink, 75; Suheila Hushi, 48; and Yelena Konrab, 43, all of Jerusalem; and Ling Chang Mai, 34, and Chai Siang Yang, 32, both foreign workers from China, were killed and 104 people were wounded when a woman terrorist blew hereselt up by detonating a powerful charge at a bus stop on Jaffa road at the entrance to Jerusalem's Mahane Yehuda open-air market. The Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Apr 20, 2002 - Border Policeman St.-Sgt. Uriel Bar-Maimon, 21 of Ashkelon was killed in an exchange of fire near the Erez industrial park in the northern Gaza Strip. Israeli forces pursued the Palestinian terrorist gunman and killed him. An explosive belt was found on his body. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility.
Apr 22, 2002 - Sgt. Maj. Nir Krichman, 22 of Hadera, was killed in an exchange of gunfire, when IDF forces entered the village of Asira a-Shamaliya, north of Nablus, to arrest known Hamas terrorists.
Apr 27, 2002 - Danielle Shefi, 5; Arik Becker, 22; Katrina (Katya) Greenberg, 45; and Ya'acov Katz, 51, all of Adora, were killed when terrorists dressed in IDF uniforms and combat gear cut through the settlement's defensive perimeter fence and entered Adora, west of Hebron. Seven other people were injured, one seriously. The terrorists entered several homes, firing on people in their bedrooms. Both Hamas and the PFLP claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 03, 2002 - IDF officer Major Avihu Ya'akov, 24, of Kfar Hasidim, was killed and two other soldiers injured in Nablus in a raid against a terror cell that was planning a terrorist attack in Israel.
May 07, 2002 - 16 people were killed and 55 wounded in a crowded game club in Rishon Lezion, southeast of Tel-Aviv, when a homicide bomber detonated a powerful charge in the 3rd floor club, causing part of the building to collapse. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 12, 2002 - Nisan Dolinger, 43, of Pe'at Sadeh in the southern Gaza Strip was shot and killed by a Palestinian terrorist laborer. The terrorist was apprehended.
May 19, 2002 - Yosef Haviv, 70, Victor Tatrinov, 63, and Arkady Vieselman, 40, all of Netanya, were killed and 59 people were injured - 10 seriously - when a terrorist, disguised as a soldier, blew himself up in the market in Netanya. Both Hamas and the PFLP took responsibility for the attack.
May 20, 2002 - A homicide bomber, apparently bound for Afula, killed himself after Border Policemen approached him for questioning at a bus stop. There were no other injuries.
May 22, 2002 - Elmar Dezhabrielov, 16, and Gary Tauzniaski, 65, both of Rishon Lezion, were killed and about 40 people were wounded when a terrorist detonated himself in the Rothschild Street downtown pedestrian mall of Rishon Lezion.
May 23, 2002 - A bomb planted by terrorists exploded underneath a fuel truck at the Pi Glilot fuel depot north of Tel Aviv. The truck burst into flames, but the blaze was quickly contained.
May 24, 2002 - A security guard opened fire on a terrorist attempting to ram a car bomb into the Studio 49 Disco in Tel Aviv. The terrorist was killed and five Israelis slightly injured when the bomb exploded prematurely.
May 24, 2002 - Reserve IDF Sgt. 1st Class Oren Tzelnik, 23, of Bat Yam was killed and two soldiers wounded when terrorists opened fire on their APC during a counter-terrorist operation in Tulkarm.
May 27, 2002 - Ruth Peled, 56, of Herzliya and her infant granddaughter Sinai Keinan, aged 14 months, of Petah Tikva were killed and 37 people were injured, some seriously, when a terrorist detonated himself near an ice cream parlor outside a shopping mall in Petah Tikva. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 28, 2002 - Albert Maloul, 50, of Jerusalem, was killed when shots were fired at the car in which he was traveling south on the Ramallah bypass road. Maloul and his cousin, who was lightly injured, were returning home to Jerusalem from Eli, where they operate the swimming pool. The Fatah Al Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 28, 2002 - Netanel Riachi, 17, of Kochav Ya'akov; Gilad Stiglitz, 14, of Yakir; and Avraham Siton, 17, of Shilo - three yeshiva high school students - were killed and two others wounded in Itamar, southeast of Nablus, when a Palestinian terrorist gunman infiltrated the community and opened fire on the teenagers playing basketball, before he was shot dead by a security guard. The Fatah Al Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 05, 2002 - 17 people were killed and 38 injured when a car packed with a large quantity of explosives struck Egged bus No. 830 traveling from Tel-Aviv to Tiberias at the Megiddo junction near Afula. The bus, which burst into flames, was completely destroyed. The terrorist was killed in the blast. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 06, 2002 - Erez Rund, 18, of Ofra died of gunshot wounds to the chest sustained in a shooting attack near Ofra, north of Ramallah, when Palestinian terrorists opened fire from an ambush.
Jun 08, 2002 - St.-Sgt. Eyal Sorek, 23, his wife Yael, 24 - 9 months pregnant - of Carmei Tzur, and St.-Sgt.-Maj.(res.) Shalom Mordechai, 35, of Nahariya were killed and five others injured when terrorists infiltrated the community of Carmei Tzur in the Gush Etzion bloc and opened fire at 2:30 A.M. on Friday night. The Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 11, 2002 - A 14-year-old girl was killed and 15 others were wounded when a Palestinian terrorist homicide bomber set off a relatively small pipe bomb at a shwarma restaurant in Herzliya.
Jun 15, 2002 - St.-Sgt. Haim Yehezkel (Hezki) Gutman, 22, of Beit El, and St.-Sgt. Alexei Gladkov, 20, of Be'er Sheva were killed and four soldiers were wounded in a confrontation with terrorists near Alei Sinai and Dugit in the northern Gaza Strip. Hamas claimed responsibility.
Lt. Anatoly Krasik, 22, of Petah Tikva died of his wounds on Jun 22.
Jun 18, 2002 - 19 people were killed and 74 injured - six seriously - in a homicide bombing at the Patt junction in Egged bus no. 32A traveling from Gilo to the center of Jerusalem. The bus, which was completely destroyed, was carrying many students on their way to school. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 19, 2002 - Seven people were killed and 50 injured - three of them in critical condition - when a homicide bomber blew himself up at a crowded bus stop and hitchhiking post at the French Hill intersection in northern Jerusalem shortly after 7:00 P.M., as people were returning home from work. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 19, 2002 - Maj. Shlomi Cohen, 26, of Rehovot and St.-Sgt. Yosef Talbi, 20, of Yehud were killed and four soldiers were wounded Wednesday night in Kalkilya when Palestinian terrorist gunmen opened fire while the soldiers were in pursuit of two terrorists inside a building
Jun 20, 2002 - Rachel Shabo, 40, and three of her sons - Neria, 16, Zvika, 12, and Avishai, 5 - as well as a neighbor, Yosef Twito, 31, who came to their aid, were murdered when a terrorist entered their home in Itamar, south of Nablus, and opened fire. Two other children were injured, as well as two soldiers. The terrorist was killed by IDF forces. The PFLP and the Fatah Al Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jul 04, 2002 - El Al ticket agent Victoria Hen, 25, and Yaakov Aminov, 46, of Los Angeles, were shot and killed at the El Al ticket counter at Los Angeles International Airport by Hesham Mohamed Hadayet, a 41-year-old Egyptian national. Four others were wounded before he was shot dead by an El Al security guard. U.S. authorities subsequently ruled it a terrorist attack related to the Israeli-Palestinian terrorist conflict.
Jul 10, 2002 - IDF officer Capt. Hagai Lev, 24, of Jerusalem, deputy commander of a Givati reconaissance unit, was killed by Palestinian terrorist sniper fire while conducting a search for weapons smuggling tunnels in Rafah, in the southern Gaza Strip. The Fatah Al Aksa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the shooting.
Jul 16, 2002 - Nine people were killed and 20 injured in a terrorist attack on Dan bus no. 189 traveling from Bnei Brak to Emmanuel in Samaria. An explosive charge was detonated next to the bullet-resistant bus. The terrorists waited in ambush, reportedly wearing IDF uniforms, and opened fire on the bus. While four terror organizations claimed responsibility for the attack, it was apparently carried out by the same Hamas cell which carried out the attack in Emmanuel on Dec 12, 2001.
Jul 17, 2002 - Five people were killed - two Israeli and three foreign workers - and about 40 were injured, four seriously, in a double homicide bombing on Neve Shaanan Street near the old central bus station in Tel Aviv. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jul 17, 2002 - Lt. Elad Grenadier, 21, of Haifa was killed and three soldiers were wounded early Wednesday morning in an exchange of fire with the terrorists responsible for the attack in Emmanuel on Jul 16.
Jul 25, 2002 - Rabbi Elimelech Shapira, 43, of Peduel, was killed and another civilian injured in a shooting attack near the West Bank community of Alei Zahav, west of Ariel. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jul 26, 2002 - St.-Sgt. Elazar Lebovitch, 21, of Hebron; Rabbi Yosef Dikstein, 45, of Psagot, his wife Hannah, 42, and their 9-year-old son Shuv'el Zion were killed in a shooting attack south of Hebron. Two other of their children were injured. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jul 30, 2002 - Five people suffered light to moderate injuries in a terrorist bombing at a falafel stand on Hanevi'im Street in the center of Jerusalem. The bomber, who was killed, apparently exploded prematurely.
Jul 30, 2002 - Shlomo Odesser, 60, and his brother Mordechai, 52, both of Tapuach in Samaria, were shot and killed when their truck came under fire in the West Bank village of Jama'in, near Ariel. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jul 31, 2002 - Nine people - four Israelis and five foreign nationals - were killed and 85 injured, 14 of them seriously, when a bomb exploded in the Frank Sinatra student center cafeteria on the Hebrew University's Mt. Scopus campus. The explosive device was planted inside the cafeteria, which was gutted by the explosion. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 01, 2002 - The body Shani Ladani, 27, of Moshav Olash, shot and bound, was found west of Tulkarem, near the Green Line, in the industrial zone where he was employed.
Aug 04, 2002 - Nine people were killed and some 50 wounded in a terrorist bombing of Egged bus No. 361 traveling from Haifa to Safed at the Meron junction in northern Israel. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 04, 2002 - Yekutiel Amitai, 34, of Jerusalem, a security guard, and Nizal Awassat, 52, of the Jabel Mukaber neighborhood in East Jerusalem, were killed and 17 were wounded when a Palestinian terrorist opened fire with a pistol near the Damascus Gate of Jerusalem's Old City. Border policemen exchanged fire with the gunman, killing him. The Fatah al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 05, 2002 - Avi Wolanski (29) and his wife Avital (27), of Eli, were killed and one of their children, aged 03, was injured when terrorists opened fire on their car as they were traveling on the Ramallah-Nablus road near Eli in Samaria. The Martyrs of the Palestinian terrorist Popular Army, a splinter group associated with Arafat's Fatah movement, claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 10, 2002 - Yafit Herenstein, 31, of Moshav Mechora in the Jordan Valley, was killed and her husband, Arno, seriously wounded when a Palestinian terrorist infiltrated the moshav and opened fire outside their home. The terrorist was killed by soldiers. The Fatah al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 20, 2002 - St.-Sgt. Kevin Cohen, 19, of Petah Tikva, was killed by a Palestinian terrorist sniper near Khan Yunis in the Gaza Strip.
Sep 05, 2002 - 1st Lt. Malik Grifat, 24, of Zarzir was killed and a soldier wounded when a Palestinian terrorist opened fire, from a crowded school, towards an IDF patrol near Nisanit in the northern Gaza Strip. The terrorist was killed. The Fatah al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 05, 2002 - Sgt. Aviad Dotan, 21, of Moshav Nir Galim was killed and three soldiers were wounded when a large bomb weighing over 100 kgs exploded under a Merkava tank near the Kissufim Crossing in central Gaza Strip. An umbrella group representing several Palestinian terrorist factions claimed responsibility.
Sep 18, 2002 - The charred body of David Buhbut, 67, of Ma'ale Adumim, shot in the head, was found near el-Azzariya, a Palestinian terrorist village near Ma'ale Adumim, east of Jerusalem, the victim of a terrorist killing.
Sep 18, 2002 - Yosef Ajami, 36, of Jerusalem was killed Wednesday afternoon when terrorists opened fire on his car near Mevo Dotan, north of Jenin in the West Bank. The other occupant of the car, a foreign worker, was lightly injured. The Fatah al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 18, 2002 - Police Sgt. Moshe Hezkiyah, 21, of Elyachin was killed and three people were wounded in a homicide bombing at a bus stop at the Umm al Fahm junction. The terrorist, who was apparently planning to detonate the bomb after boarding a bus, set the charge off early when approached by the police for questioning. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 19, 2002 - Solomon Hoenig, 79, of Tel Aviv; Yossi Mamistavlov, 39 of Or Yehuda; Yaffa Shemtov, 49, of Tel Aviv; Rosanna Siso, 63, of Gan Yavneh; Ofer Zinger, 29, of Moshav Pazael; and Jonathan (Yoni) Jesner, 19, of Glasgow, Scotland were killed and about 70 people were wounded when a terrorist detonated a bomb in Dan bus No. 4 on Allenby Street, opposite the Great Synagogue in Tel-Aviv. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 23, 2002 - Shlomo Yitzhak Shapira, 48, of Jerusalem was killed and three of his children wounded, one seriously, in a shooting attack Monday evening near the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron. The family, from Jerusalem, had come to Hebron to celebrate the Sukkot festival.
Sep 26, 2002 - Capt. Harel Marmelstein, 23, of Mevasseret Zion, an IDF officer from the naval commando, was killed while leading a search for wanted terrorists in the West Bank village of Labed near Tulkarem. Senior Hamas terrorist Nisa'at Jaber ambushed the troops, opening fire and killing the commander. Jaber was killed by the soldiers.
Sep 30, 2002 - Sgt. Ari Weiss, 21, of Ra'anana, was killed and another soldier from the engineering battalion of the Nahal Brigade was wounded when Palestinian terrorist gunmen opened fire on an army position in the Nablus casbah. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 08, 2002 - Oded Wolk, 51, of Modi'in, who was critically wounded in an ambush shooting south of Hebron, died of his wounds the following day (Oct 9). Three other Israelis were injured in the attack when Palestinian terrorist gunmen opened fire on their car. Hamas claimed resopnsibility for the attack.
Oct 10, 2002 - Sa'ada Aharon, 71, of Ramat Gan was killed and about 30 people were wounded when a Palestinian terrorist blew himself up while trying to board Dan bus No. 87 across from Bar-Ilan University on the Geha highway (Route 4). Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 21, 2002 - 14 people were killed and some 50 wounded when a car bomb containing about 100 kilograms of explosives was detonated next to a No. 841 Egged bus from Kiryat Shmona to Tel-Aviv, while traveling along Wadi Ara on Route No. 65 toward Hadera. The bus had pulled over at a bus stop when the terrorist bomber, from Jenin, driving a jeep, approached from behind and exploded. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 27, 2002 - Maj. (res.) Tamir Masad, 41, of Ben Shemen; Lt. Matan Zagron, 22, of Itamar; and Sgt.-Maj. Amihud Hasid, 32, of Tapuah were killed and about 20 people were wounded in a homicide bombing at the Sonol gas station at the entrance to Ariel in Samaria. The two officers and soldier were killed while trying to prevent the terrorist from detonating the bomb. The terrorist was identified as a member of Hamas.
Oct 29, 2002 - Three Hermesh residents - Orna Eshel, 53, Linoy Saroussi and Hadas Turgeman, both 14 - were killed and two were wounded when a terrorist armed with a Kalashnikov assault rifle and wearing an explosive belt opened fire, after infiltrating the settlement in northern Samaria. The terrorist was shot dead. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 04, 2002 - Security guard Julio Pedro Magram, 51, of Kfar Sava, and Gastón Perpiñal, 15, of Ra'anana, both recent immigrants from Argentina, were killed and about 70 people were wounded in a homocide bombing at a shopping mall in Kfar Sava. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 06, 2002 - Assaf Tzfira, 18, of B'dolah and Amos Sa'ada, 52, of Rafiah Yam were killed when when a Palestinian terrorist opened fire in a hothouse and textile factory at Pe'at Sadeh in the southern Gaza Strip. The terrorist was killed by a security officer. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 09, 2002 - Sgt.-Maj. Madin Grifat, 23, of Beit Zarzir was killed when a mine exploded during a routine patrol northeast of Netzarim in the Gaza Strip. The Givati Brigade company commander was wounded. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 10, 2002 - Revital Ohayon, 34, and her two sons, Matan, 05, and Noam, 04, as well as Yitzhak Dori, 44 - all of Kibbutz Metzer - and Tirza Damari, 42, of Elyachin, were killed when a terrorist infiltrated the kibbutz, located east of Hadera near the Green Line, and opened fire. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 15, 2002 - Twelve people - 9 soldiers and three civilians from the Kiryat Arba emergency response team - were killed and 15 others wounded Friday night in Hebron when Palestinian terrorists opened fire and threw grenades at a group of Jewish worshipers and their guards as they were walking home from Sabbath prayers at the Cave of the Patriarchs. The dead included civilian worshipers and soldiers, some of whom were caught in an ambush as they pursued the attackers. Three terrorists were killed in the attack, which was claimed by the Islamic Jihad. The victims: Col. Dror Weinberg, 38, of Jerusalem; Border Police officer Ch.-Supt. Samih Sweidan, 31, of Arab al-Aramsha; Sgt. Tomer Nov, 19, of Ashdod; Sgt. Gad Rahamim, 19, of Kiryat Malachi; St.-Sgt. Netanel Machluf, 19, of Hadera; St.-Sgt. Yeshayahu Davidov, 20, of Netanya; Sgt. Igor Drobitsky, 20, of Nahariya; Cpl. David Marcus, 20, of Ma'aleh Adumim; and Lt. Dan Cohen, 22, of Jerusalem. The three civilian members of the Kiryat Arba emergency response team killed were Yitzhak Buanish, 46; Alexander Zwitman, 26; and Alexander Dohan, 33.
Nov 18, 2002 - Esther Galia, 48, of Kochav Hashahar, was killed in a shooting attack near Rimonim, on the Allon Road, some 15 kilometers northeast of Ramallah.
Nov 21, 2002 - Eleven people were killed and some 50 wounded by a terrorist bomber on a No. 20 Egged bus on Mexico Street in the Kiryat Menahem neighborhood of Jerusalem. The bus was filled with passengers, including schoolchildren, traveling toward the center of the city during rush hour. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack. The victims: Hodaya Asaraf, 13, of Jerusalem; Marina Bazarski, 46, of Jerusalem; Hadassah (Yelena) Ben-David, 32, of Jerusalem; Sima Novak, 56, of Jerusalem; Kira Perlman, 67, and her grandson Ilan Perlman, 8, of Jerusalem; Yafit Ravivo, 14 of Jerusalem; Ella Sharshevsky, 44, and her son Michael Sharshevsky, 16, of Jerusalem; Mircea Varga, 25, a tourist from Romania; Dikla Zino, 22, of Jerusalem.
Nov 22, 2002 - IDF tracker Sgt.-Maj. Shigdaf (Shai) Garmai, 30, of Lod, was killed when an Israel Defense Forces Givati Brigade patrol near Tel Qateifa, in the Gaza Strip, came under Palestinian terrorist gunfire. Hamas claimed responsibility.
Nov 28, 2002 - Noy and Dvir Anter, aged 12 and 14, of Ariel, and Albert (Avraham) de Havila, 60, of Ra'anana were killed along with 10 Kenyans when a car bomb exploded in the lobby of the Israeli-owned beachfront Paradise Hotel, frequented almost exclusively by Israeli tourists, near Mombasa in Kenya; 21 Israelis were among the 80 wounded. Osama bin Laden's Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for the attack, as well as for the simultaneous attempt to down an Arkia plane.
Nov 28, 2002 - Haim Amar, 56; Ehud (Yehuda) Avitan, 54; Mordechai Avraham, 44; Ya'acov Lary, 35; and David Peretz, 48 - all of Beit She'an; and Shaul Zilberstein, 36, of Upper Nazareth, were killed and about 40 wounded when two terrorists opened fire and threw grenades at the Likud polling station in Beit She'an, near the central bus station, where party members were casting their votes in the Likud primary. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 12, 2002 - Cpl. Keren Ya'akobi, 19, of Hadera and Sgt. Maor Kalfon, 19, of Kiryat Yam were killed while on guard near the Tomb of the Patriarchs in Hebron.
Dec 20, 2002 - Rabbi Yitzhak Arama, 40, of Netzer Hazani in Gush Katif, in the Gaza Strip, was shot and killed on the Kissufim corridor road while driving with his wife and six children to attend a pre-wedding Sabbath celebration in Afula. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 27, 2002 - Four yeshiva students - St.-Sgt. Noam Apter, 23, of Shilo; Pvt. Yehuda Bamberger, 20, of Karnei Shomron; Gavriel Hoter, 17, of Alonei Habashan; and Zvi Zieman, 18, of Reut - were killed in Otniel, south of Hebron, while working in the yeshiva kitchen, serving the Shabbat meal to some 100 students in the adjacent dining room. The two terrorists from the Islamic Jihad, which claimed responsibility for the attack, were killed by IDF forces. Ten other, including six soldiers, were wounded in the attack.
Jan 02, 2003 - The charred body of Massoud Makhluf Alon, 72, from Menahemiya in the Lower Galilee, was found in the northern Jordan Valley in his burned out car. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the murder.
Jan 05, 2003 - Twenty-three people - 15 Israelis and 8 foreign nationals - were killed and about 120 wounded when two terrorists blew themselves up near the old Central Bus Station in Tel-Aviv. The attack was apparently carried out by two members of the Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades, with the help of the Islamic Jihad.
The Israeli victims: Moshe (Maurice) Aharfi, 60, of Tel-Aviv; Mordechai Evioni, 52, of Holon; Andrei Friedman, 30, of Tel-Aviv; Meir Haim, 74, of Azor; Hannah Haimov, 53, of Tel Aviv; Avi Kotzer, 43, of Bat Yam; Ramin Nasibov, 25, of Tel-Aviv; Staff Sgt. Mazal Orkobi, 20, of Azor; Ilanit Peled, 32, of Azor; Viktor Shebayev, 62, of Holon; Boris Tepalshvili, 51, of Yehud; Sapira Shoshana Yulzari-Yaffe, 46, of Bat Yam; Lilya Zibstein, 33, of Haifa; Amiram Zmora, 55, of Holon; Igor Zobokov, 32, of Bat Yam.
Foreign workers: Krassimir Mitkov Angelov, 32, of Bulgaria; Steven Arthur Cromwell, 43, of Ghana; Ivan Gaptoniak, 46, of Ukraine; Ion (Nelu) Nicolae, 34, of Romania; Guo Aiping, 47, of China; Li Peizhong, 41, of China; Mihai Sabau, 38, of Romania. Zhang Minmin, 53, of China died of her wounds on January 13.
Jan 12, 2003 - Eli Biton, 48, of Moshav Gadish was killed and four people wounded when terrorists infiltrated the community and opened fire. Two terrorists were killed by Israeli forces. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 12, 2003 - Sgt.(res.) Mikhail Kazakov, 34, of Jerusalem was killed by terrorists who infiltrated across the Israel-Egypt border, near the Negev town of Nitzana.
Jan 17, 2003 - Netanel Ozeri, 34, was killed when terrorists entered his home, in an outpost north of Kiryat Arba, and opened fire. His 5-year-old daughter and two friends were wounded. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 23, 2003 - Cpl. Ronald Berer, 20, of Rehovot; Cpl. Assaf Bitan, 19, of Afula; and St.-Sgt. Ya'akov Naim, 20, of Kfar Monash were killed by terrorists while on patrol south of Hebron. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 06, 2003 - 2nd Lt. Amir Ben-Aryeh, 21, of Maccabim, and St.-Sgt. Idan Suzin, 20, of Kiryat Tivon were killed and two more soldiers were wounded in a shooting attack in the area of Nablus. Both gunmen were killed by return fire from IDF troops. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine and Fatah-Tanzim claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 11, 2003 - Maj. Shahar Shmul, 24, of Jerusalem was killed by a terrorist sniper near the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem while checking a suspicious vehicle. The PFLP and the Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 15, 2003 - Cpl. Noam Bahagon, 20, of Elkana; Sgt. Tal Alexei Belitzky, 21, of Rishon Lezion; St.-Sgt. Doron Cohen, 21, of Rishon Lezion; and Sgt. Itay Mizrahi, 20, of Be'er Sheva were killed when their tank drove over an explosive device weighing 100 kgs while on patrol in the Gaza Strip. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 23, 2003 - Sgt. Doron Lev, 19, of Holon was shot and killed when a terrorist sniper opened fire at an army position in the southern Gaza Strip. The PFLP claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 05, 2003 - Seventeen people were killed and 53 wounded when a terrorist blem himself up aboard an Egged bus #37 on Moriah Blvd. in the Carmel section of Haifa, en route to Haifa University. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
The victims: Maryam Atar, 27, of Haifa; Smadar Firstater, 16, of Haifa; Kamar Abu Hamed, 12, of Daliat al-Carmel; Daniel Haroush, 16, of Safed; Mordechai Hershko, 41, of Haifa; Tom Hershko, 15, of Haifa; Meital Katav, 20, of Haifa ; Elizabeta Katzman, 16, of Haifa; Tal Kerman, 17, of Haifa; St.-Sgt. Eliyahu Laham, 22, of Haifa; Abigail Litle, 14, of Haifa; Yuval Mendelevitch, 13, of Haifa; St.-Sgt. Be'eri Oved, 21, of Rosh Pina; Mark Takash, 54, of Haifa; Assaf Tzur (Zolinger), 17, of Haifa.
Anatoly Biryakov, 20, of Haifa, died of his injuries on March 8. Moran Shushan, 20, of Haifa, died of her injuries on March 11.
Mar 07, 2003 - Rabbi Eli Horowitz, 52, and his wife Dina, 50, of Kiryat Arba, were killed and five wounded Friday night by armed terrorists disguised as Jewish worshippers who infiltrated Kiryat Arba, entered their home and murdered them while they were celebrating the Sabbath. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 10, 2003 - St.-Sgt. Tomer Ron, 20, of Moshav Moledet, was killed and four soldiers were wounded - one seriously - in Hebron, on the road between the Cave of the Patriarchs and Kiryat Arba, when terrorists opened fire on a foot patrol. Two organizations - Hamas and Ahmed Jibril's Popular Front-General Command - claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 12, 2003 - St.-Sgt. Assaf Moshe Fuchs, 21, of Kibbutz Gvat was killed and another soldier wounded Wednesday morning in an exchange of fire with wanted terrorists from the Islamic Jihad in the West Bank village of Saida, near Tulkarm.
Mar 18, 2003 - Sgt.-Maj. (res.) Ami Cohen, 27, of Netanya was killed and another soldier wounded south of Bethlehem when Palestinian terrorists opened fire during a search for wanted terrorists.
Mar 19, 2003 - Zion Boshirian, 51, of Mevo Dotan was shot and killed while driving in his car between Mevo Dotan and Shaked in northern Samaria. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Apr 10, 2003 - St.-Sgt. Yigal Lifshitz, 20, of Rishon Lezion, and St.-Sgt. Ofer Sharabi, 21, of Givat Shmuel were killed and nine others wounded when Palestinian terrorists opened fire before dawn on their base near Bekaot in the northern Jordan Valley. The PFLP and the al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Apr 15, 2003 - Lt. Daniel Mandel, 24, of Alon Shvut was killed and another soldier was wounded in an exchange of gunfire during a search for wanted Hamas terrorists in Nablus.
Apr 15, 2003 - Zachar Rahamin Hanukayev, 39, of Sderot and Ahmed Salah Kara, 20, of Shuafat in northern Jerusalem were killed and four Israelis were wounded when a Palestinian terrorist opened fire at the Karni industrial zone crossing in the Gaza Strip. The gunman was killed by security personnel. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Apr 20, 2003 - IDF photographer Cpl. Lior Ziv, 19, of Holon, was killed and three other soldiers were wounded during an operation to destroy a Hamas smuggling tunnel in Rafah, in the Gaza Strip.
Apr 24, 2003 - Alexander Kostyuk, a 23-year-old security guard from Bat Yam, was killed and 13 were wounded, two seriously, in a terrorist bombing outside the train station in Kfar Sava. Groups related to the Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades and the PFLP clamied joint responsibility for the attack.
Apr 30, 2003 - Ran Baron, 23, of Tel Aviv, Dominique Caroline Hass, 29, of Tel Aviv, and Yanai Weiss, 46, of Holon, were murdered and about 60 people were wounded when a terrorist bomber blew himself up at a beachfront pub, "Mike's Place," in Tel Aviv. The Fatah Tanzim and Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack, carried out as a joint operation. Investigation revealed that the two British Muslims involved in the bombing were dispatched to perpetrate the attack by the Hamas military command in the Gaza Strip.
May 04, 2003 - The body of Tali Weinberg, 26, of Beit Aryeh, was discovered in a garage in Rosh Ha'ayin with numerous stab wounds. The suspect, Weinberg's boyfriend, arrested on Jun 11, a 21-year-old Arab resident of Kafr Qasem, is believed to have carried out the murder as part of a "loyalty test" administered by Palestinian terrorist organizations.
May 05, 2003 - Gideon Lichterman, 27, of Ahiya, was killed and two other passengers, his six-year-old daughter Moriah and a reserve soldier, were seriously wounded when terrorists fired shots at their vehicle near Shvut Rachel, in Samaria. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 11, 2003 - Zion David, 53, of Givat Ze'ev near Jerusalem, was shot in the head and killed by Palestinian terrorists in a roadside ambush half a kilometer from Ofra, north of Jerusalem. Both Fatah and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 17, 2003 - Gadi Levy and his wife Dina, aged 31 and 37, of Kiryat Arba were killed by a terrorist bomber in Hebron. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 18, 2003 - Seven people were killed and 20 wounded in a terrorist bombing on Egged bus no. 6 near French Hill in Jerusalem. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack. The victims: Olga Brenner, 52; Yitzhak Moyal, 64; Nelly Perov, 55; Marina Tsahivershvili, 44; Shimon Ustinsky, 68; and Roni Yisraeli, 34 - all of the Pisgat Ze'ev neighborhood in Jerusalem; and Ghalab Tawil, 42, of Shuafat. A second terrorist bomber detonated his bomb when intercepted by police in northern Jerusalem. The terrorist was killed; no one else was injured.
May 19, 2003 - Kiryl Shremko, 22, of Afula; Hassan Ismail Tawatha, 41, of Jisr a-Zarqa; and Avi Zerihan, 36, of Beit Shean were killed and about 70 people were wounded in a terrorist bombing at the entrance to the Amakim Mall in Afula. The Islamic Jihad and the Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades both claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 05, 2003 - The bodies of David Shambik, 26, and Moran Menachem, 17, both of Jerusalem, were found near Hadassah Ein Karem Hospital in Jerusalem, brutally beaten and stabbed to death.
Jun 08, 2003 - Sgt. Maj. (Res.) Assaf Abergil, 23, of Eilat; Sgt. Maj. (Res.) Udi Eilat, 38, of Eilat; Sgt. Maj. Boaz Emete, 24, of Beit She'an; and Sgt. Maj. (Res.) Chen Engel, 32, of Ramat Gan were killed and four reserve soldiers were wounded when Palestinian terrorists wearing IDF uniforms opened fire on an IDF outpost near the Erez checkpoint and industrial zone in the Gaza Strip. Three terrorists were killed by IDF soldiers. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades, Hamas and the Islamic Jihad issued a joint statement claiming responsibility for the attack.
Jun 08, 2003 - St.-Sgt. Matan Gadri, 21, of Moshav Moledet was killed in Hebron while pursuing two Palestinian terrorist gunmen who earlier had wounded a Border Policeman on guard at the Tomb of the Patriarchs. The two terrorists were killed.
Jun 11, 2003 - Seventeen people were killed and over 100 wounded in a terrorist bombing on Egged bus #14A outside the Klal building on Jaffa Road in the center of Jerusalem. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
The victims: Sgt. Tamar Ben-Eliahu, 20, of Moshav Paran; Alan Beer, 46, of Jerusalem; Eugenia Berman, 50, of Jerusalem; Elsa Cohen, 70, of Jerusalem; Zvi Cohen, 39, of Jerusalem; Roi Eliraz, 22, of Mevaseret Zion; Alexander Kazaris, 77, of Jerusalem; Yaffa Mualem, 65, of Jerusalem; Yaniv Obayed, 22, of Herzliya; Bat-El Ohana, 21, of Kiryat Ata; Anna Orgal, 55, of Jerusalem; Zippora Pesahovitch, 54, of Zur Hadassah; Bianca Shahrur, 62, of Jerusalem; Malka Sultan, 67, of Jerusalem; Bertin Tita, 75, of Jerusalem. Miriam Levy, 74, of Jerusalem died of her wounds on Jun 12.
Haile Abraha Hawki, 56, a foreign worker from Eritrea, was positively identified on Jun 24.
Jun 12, 2003 - Avner Maimon, 51, of Netanya, was found shot to death in his car near Yabed in northern Samaria. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 13, 2003 - St.-Sgt. Mordechai Sayada, 22, of Tirat Carmel, was shot to death in Jenin by a Palestinian terrorist sniper as his jeep patrol passed by. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 17, 2003 - Noam Leibowitz, 7, of Yemin Orde was killed and three members of her family wounded in a shooting attack near the Kibbutz Eyal junction on the Trans-Israel Highway. The terrorist fired from the outskirts of the West Bank city of Kalkilya. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 19, 2003 - Avner Mordechai, 58, of Moshav Sde Trumot, was killed when a terrorist bomber blew up in his grocery on Sde Trumot, south of Beit Shean. The terrorist bomber was killed. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 20, 2003 - Zvi Goldstein, 47, of Eli, was killed when his car was fired upon in an ambush by Palestinian terrorists near Ofra, north of Ramallah. His parents, Eugene and Lorraine Goldstein, from New York, were seriously wounded and his wife lightly injured. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 26, 2003 - Amos (Amit) Mantin, 31, of Hadera, a Bezeq employee, was killed in a shooting attack in the Israeli Arab town of Baka al-Garbiyeh. The shots were fired by a Palestinian terrorist teenager, who was apprehended by police. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 27, 2003 - Sgt. Maj. Erez Ashkenazi, 21, of Kibbutz Reshafim, an Israeli navy commando, was killed in an operation in Gaza to capture a Hamas cell, believed responsible for several bombings and the firing of anti-tank missiles in the Netzarim area.
Jun 30, 2003 - Krastyu Radkov, 46, a construction worker from Bulgaria, was killed in a shooting attack on the Yabed bypass road in northern Samaria, west of Jenin, while driving a truck. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack, in opposition to the declared ceasefire.
Jul 07, 2003 - Mazal Afari, 65, of Moshav Kfar Yavetz was killed in her home on Monday evening and three of her grandchildren lightly wounded in a terrorist bombing. The remains of the bomber were also found in the wreckage of the house. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jul 15, 2003 - Amir Simhon, 24, of Bat Yam was killed when a Palestinian terrorist armed with a long-bladed knife stabbed passersby on Tel Aviv's beachfront promenade, after a security guard prevented him from entering the Tarabin cafe and was wounded. The terrorist, who was shot and apprehended, is a member of the Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades, which claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 08, 2003 - Third Petty Officer Roi Oren, 20, an Israel Navy commando, was shot in the head and killed in an assault on a Hamas bomb factory in Nablus.
Jul 21, 2003 - The body of IDF soldier Cpl. Oleg Shaichat, 20, of Upper Nazareth, abducted and murdered on Jul 21 while on his way home, was found on Jul 28, buried in an olive grove near Kafr Kana, an Arab village in the Lower Galilee.
Aug 10, 2003 - Haviv Dadon, 16, of Shlomi, was struck in the chest and killed by shrapnel from an anti-aircraft shell fired by Hizbullah terrorists in Lebanon, as he sat with friends after work.
Aug 12, 2003 - Yehezkel (Hezi) Yekutieli, 43, of Rosh Ha'ayin, was murdered by a Palestinian terrorist bomber, 17, who detonated himself as Yekutieli was shopping for his children's breakfast at his local supermarket.
Aug 12, 2003 - Erez Hershkovitz, 18, of Eilon Moreh, was murdered by a Palestinian terrorist bomber, 17, who detonated himself at a bus stop outside Ariel less than half an hour after the Rosh Ha'ayin attack. Amatzia Nisanevitch, 22, of Nofim, died of his wounds on August 28.
Aug 19, 2003 - Twenty-three people were killed and over 130 wounded when a Palestinian terrorist detonated himself on a No. 2 Egged bus in Jerusalem's Shmuel Hanavi neighborhood. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
The victims: Avraham Bar-Or, 12, of Jerusalem; Binyamin Bergman, 15, of Jerusalem; Yaakov Binder, 50, of Jerusalem; Feiga Dushinski, 50, of Jerusalem; Miriam Eisenstein, 20, of Bnei Brak; Lilach Kardi, 22, of Jerusalem; Menachem Leibel, 24, of Jerusalem; Elisheva Meshulami, 16, of Bnei Brak; Tehilla Nathanson, 03, of Zichron Ya'acov; Chava Nechama Rechnitzer, 19, of Bnei Brak; Mordechai Reinitz, 49, and Issachar Reinitz, 9, of Netanya; Maria Antonia Reslas, 39, of the Philippines; Liba Schwartz, 54, of Jerusalem; Hanoch Segal, 65, of Bnei Brak; Goldie Taubenfeld, 43, and Shmuel Taubenfeld, 3 months, of New Square, New York; Rabbi Eliezer Weisfish, 42, of Jerusalem; Shmuel Wilner, 50, of Jerusalem; Shmuel Zargari, 11 months, of Jerusalem. Fruma Rahel Weitz, 73, of Jerusalem died of her wounds on August 23. Mordechai Laufer, 27, of Netanya died of his wounds on Sepember 5. Tova Lev, 37, of Bnei-Brak died of her wounds on Sepember 12.
Aug 29, 2003 - Shalom Har-Melekh, 25, of Homesh was killed in a shooting attack while driving northeast of Ramallah. His wife, Limor, who was seven months pregnant, sustained moderate injuries, and gave birth to a baby girl by Caesarean section. The Fatah al-Aqsa Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 04, 2003 - St.-Sgt. Gabriel Uziel, 20, of Givat Ze'ev was shot and mortally wounded by a terrorist sniper in Jenin; he died en route to the hospital. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades and the Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 05, 2003 - 2nd Petty Officer Ra'anan Komemi, 23, of Moshav Aminadav, from the Naval Commandos was killed in a clash with armed Palestinian terrorists in Nablus. A senior Hamas bomb-maker, believed to have orchestrated several fatal terrorist bombings, was also killed in the clash. Four soldiers were wounded, one seriously.
Sep 09, 2003 - Eight IDF soldiers were killed and 32 people were wounded when a terrorist detonated himself at a hitchhiking post for soldiers outside a main entrance to the Tzrifin army base and Assaf Harofeh Hospital. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack. The victims: Senior Warrant Officer Haim Alfasi, 39, of Haifa; Chief Warrant Officer Yaakov Ben-Shabbat, 39, of Pardes Hanna; Cpl. Mazi Grego, 19, of Holon; Capt. Yael Kfir, 21, of Ashkelon; Cpl. Felix Nikolaichuk, 20, of Bat Yam; Sgt. Yonatan Peleg, 19, of Moshav Yanuv; Sgt. Efrat Schwartzman, 19, of Moshav Ganei Yehuda; and Cpl. Prosper Twito, 20, of Upper Nazareth.
Sep 09, 2003 - Seven people were killed and over 50 wounded when a terrorist detonated himself at Cafe Hillel on Emek Refaim St., the main thoroughfare of the German Colony neighborhood in Jerusalem. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
The victims: Dr. David Appelbaum, 51, and his daughter Nava Appelbaum, 20, of Jerusalem; David Shimon Avizadris, 51, of Mevaseret Zion; Shafik Kerem, 27, of Beit Hanina; Alon Mizrahi, 22, of Jerusalem; Gila Moshe, 40, of Jerusalem; and Yehiel (Emil) Tubol, 52, of Jerusalem.
Sep 25, 2003 - St.-Sgt. Avihu Keinan, 22, of Shilo was killed and six soldiers wounded in an IDF operation to arrest wanted Islamic Jihad and Hamas terrorists in the El Boureij refugee camp in the southern Gaza Strip.
Sep 26, 2003 - Eyal Yeberbaum, 27, and seven-month-old Shaked Avraham, both of Negohot, south of Hebron, were killed during the holiday meal on the eve of Rosh Hashana in the Yeberbaum home when a Palestinian terrorist who infiltrated the settlement opened fire with an M-16 assault rifle. The terrorist was killed by IDF forces. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 04, 2003 - Nineteen people were killed, including four children, and 60 wounded in a bombing carried out by a female terrorist from Jenin in the Maxim restaurant in Haifa. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 15, 2003 - Three American diplomatic personnel - John Eric Branchizio, 37, of Texas, John Martin Linde, Jr., 30, of Missouri, and Mark T. Parson, 31, of New York, were killed and one was wounded at the Beit Hanoun junction in the Gaza Strip when a massive bomb demolished an armor-plated jeep in a convoy carrying U.S. diplomats.
Oct 19, 2003 - St.-Sgt. Erez Idan, 19, of Rishon Lezion, Sgt. Elad Pollack, 19, of Kiryat Motzkin, and Sgt. Roi Ya'acov Solomon, 21, of Tel Aviv, were killed and another soldier was seriously wounded while on patrol in Ein Yabrud, north of Ramallah, when terrorists fired on them from behind. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 24, 2003 - Three IDF soldiers - St.-Sgt. Alon Avrahami, 21, of Or Yehuda, Sgt. Adi Osman, 19, of Kfar Sava, and Sgt. Sarit Schneor-Senior, 19, of Shoham - were killed and two others wounded when a Palestinian terrorist infiltrated the army base in the Gaza Strip settlement of Netzarim and opened fire on the soldiers' barracks. Hamas and the Islamic Jihad claimed joint responsibility for the attack.
Nov 18, 2003 - Two IDF soldiers, Sgt.-Maj. Shlomi Belsky, 23, of Haifa, and St.-Sgt. Shaul Lahav, 20, of Kibbutz Shomrat, were killed by a Palestinian terrorist who opened fire with an AK-47 assault rifle, hidden in a prayer rug, at a checkpoint on the tunnel bypass road, linking Jerusalem and the Gush Etzion bloc. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 19, 2003 - Patricia Ter´n Navarrete, 33, of Ecuador was killed and four other tourists, pilgrims from Ecuador, were wounded when a terrorist entered the Israel-Jordan border crossing terminal north of Eilat from the Jordanian side and opened fire. The terrorist was killed by Israeli security guards.
Nov 22, 2003 - Two Israeli security guards, Ilya Reiger, 58, of Jerusalem, and Samer Fathi Afan, 25, of the Bedouin village Uzeir near Nazareth, were shot dead at a construction site along the route of the security fence near Abu Dis in East Jerusalem. The Jenin Martyrs' Brigades, affiliated with Fatah, claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 22, 2003 - Capt. Hagai Bibi, 24, of Maaleh Adumim, and Lt. Leonardo (Alex) Weissman, 23, of Afula were killed when a Palestinian terrorist opened fire and threw hand grenades as they emerged from their jeep on the Kissufim-Gush Katif road in the Gaza Strip. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 25, 2003 - Adva Fisher, 20, of Kfar Sava; St.-Sgt. Noam Leibowitz, 22, of Elkana; Cpl. Angelina Shcherov, 19, of Kfar Sava; and Cpl. Rotem Weinberger, 19, of Kfar Sava were killed and over 20 people were wounded in a terrorist bombing at a bus stop at the Geha Junction, east of Tel Aviv, near Petah Tikva. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 13, 2004 - Ro'i Arbel, 29, of Talmon, was killed in a terror shooting ambush near his home in Samaria. Three other passengers of the vehicle were wounded. The Fatah Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 14, 2004 - Cpl. Andrei Kegeles, 19, of Nahariya; St.-Sgt. Tzur Or, 20, of Rishon Lezion; security guard Gal Shapira, 29, of Ashkelon; and Border Policeman St.-Sgt. Vladimir Trostinsky, 22, of Rehovot were killed and 10 wounded when a female terrorist detonated herself at the Erez Crossing in the Gaza Strip. Hamas and the Fatah Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed joint responsibility for the attack.
Jan 29, 2004 - Eleven people were killed and over 50 wounded, 13 of them seriously, in a terrorist bombing of an Egged bus no. 19 at the corner of Gaza and Arlozorov streets in Jerusalem. Both the Fatah-related Al Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades and Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack, naming the bomber as Ali Yusuf Jaara, a 24-year-old Palestinian terrorist policeman from Bethlehem.
Feb 22, 2004 - Eight people were killed and over 60 wounded, 11 of them school pupils, in a terrorist bombing on Jerusalem bus no. 14A near the Liberty Bell Park. The Fatah Al Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack, which was carried out by Mohammed Za'ul, from the Bethlehem area.
Feb 26, 2004 - Sgt.-Maj.(res.) Amir Zimmerman, 25, of Kfar Monash was killed and two other soldiers wounded when two Palestinian terrorists opened fire near the Erez Crossing between the Gaza Strip and Israel. The terrorists were killed by IDF forces. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 27, 2004 - Eitan Kukoi, 30, and his wife, Rima Novikov Kukoi, 25, were killed in a terrorist shooting attack on the Lahav-Ashkelon road, along the Green Line. The PFLP and the Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades both claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 14, 2004 - Ten people were killed and 16 wounded in a double terrorist detonation at Ashdod Port. Hamas and Fatah claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 19, 2004 - George Khoury, 20, a Christian Arab and the son of well-known veteran attorney Elias Khoury of Beit Hanina, was shot to death from a vehicle while jogging in the north Jerusalem neighborhood of French Hill. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade, which claimed responsibility for the attack, later published an apology.
Apr 03, 2004 - Yaakov (Kobi) Zagha, 40, of Avnei Hefetz was shot dead by a terrorist outside his home, after his daughter Hani, 14, was shot and wounded. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Apr 17, 2004 - Border Policeman Cpl. Kfir Ohayon, 20, of Eilat was killed, three others wounded when a Palestinian terrorist blew himself up at the Erez Crossing. Hamas and Fatah claimed joint responsibility for the attack.
Apr 25, 2004 - Border Policeman Cpl. Yaniv Mashiah, 20, of Jaffa, was killed and three others lightly wounded just an hour after the beginning of Memorial Day for Israel's fallen soldiers when shots were fired at their vehicle near Hebron. The Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
May 02, 2004 - Tali Hatuel, 34, and her daughters - Hila, 11, Hadar, 9, Roni, 7, and Merav, 2 - of Katif in the Gaza Strip were killed and another civilian and two soldiers wounded when two Palestinian terrorists fired on an Israeli car at the entrance to the Gaza Strip settlement bloc of Gush Katif. Fatah and Islamic Jihad claimed joint responsibility for the attack.
May 11, 2004 - Six IDF soldiers were killed during an IDF operation to target Qassam workshops in Gaza City, when an Armored Personnel Carrier was struck by an explosive device planted by Palestinian terrorists. Hamas and the Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack. The soldiers killed: Sgt. Adaron Amar, 20, of Eilat; Sgt. Aviad Deri, 21, of Maale Adumim; Staff-Sgt. Ofer Jerbi, 21, of Moshav Ben-Zakai; Staff-Sgt. Ya'akov (Zelco) Marviza, 25, of Kibbutz Hama'apil; Sgt. Kobi Mizrahi, 20, of Moshav Mata; and Staff-Sgt. Eitan Newman, 21, of Jerusalem.
May 12, 2004 - An IDF officer and four soldiers were killed, and three IDF soldiers were lightly injured, while preparing to detonate a weapon-smuggling tunnel on the Philadelphi Route near the Israeli-Egyptian border near Rafah. Their armored personnel carrier exploded, apparently after being hit by an RPG anti-tank rocket. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack. The soldiers killed: Cpl. Elad Cohen, 20, of Jerusalem; Sgt.-Maj. Aiman Ghadir, 24, of Bir Makhsur; Capt. Aviv Hakani, 23, of Ashdod; Sgt. Za'ur (Zohar) Smelev, 19, of Ofakim; and Sgt. Lior Vishinski, 20, of Ramat Gan.
May 14, 2004 - St.-Sgt. Rotem Adam, 21, Rishon Lezion and Sgt. Alexei Hayat, 21, of Beer Sheva were killed and two soldiers moderately wounded by Palestinian terrorist sniper fire in the Rafah refugee camp in the southern Gaza Strip.
May 29, 2004 - Maj. Shachar Ben-Yishai, 25, of Menahemia was killed by Palestinian terrorist gunfire following a search in the Balata camp near Nablus. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 21, 2004 - A foreign worker, Weerachai Wongput, 37, from the Nong Han District of the northeastern province of Udon Thani in Thailand, died after being hit by shrapnel from a mortar fired into greenhouses in Kfar Darom in the Gaza Strip. The mortar was fired by Palestinian terrorists trying to divert attention from an attempt to infiltrate the settlement. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 27, 2004 - St.-Sgt. Roi Nissim, 20, of Rishon Lezion, was killed and five other soldiers were wounded when their outpost in the Gaza Strip was blown up by Hamas terrorists who tunneled under the position and detonated a massive explosive charge.
Jun 28, 2004 - Mordechai Yosepov, 49, and Afik Zahavi, four, were killed when a Kassam rocket fired by Hamas terrorists in the Gaza Strip struck near a nursery school in the northern Negev town of Sderot.
Jun 29, 2004 - Moshe Yohai, 63, of Ashdod, was found shot to death in Beit Rima, a Palestinian terrorist Authority-controlled village near Ramallah, where he had apparently gone on business. The Aksa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility.
Jul 04, 2004 - Victor Kreiderman, 49, of Mevo Dotan, was ambushed and shot to death by Aksa Martyrs Brigades terrorists as he and his wife were driving near the village of Yabad. His wife, Emma, was lightly wounded.
Jul 06, 2004 - Capt. Moran Vardi, 25, of Binyamina, of the Navy Seals commando unit Shayetet 13, was killed, and three others were wounded in an exchange of fire between IDF forces and Palestinian terrorists while attempting to arrest terrorists in Nablus.
Jul 11, 2004 - Sgt. Ma'ayan Na'im, 19, of Bat Yam, was killed and 33 wounded when a bomb exploded at a bus stop in downtown Tel Aviv at about 7 a.m. One person was critically wounded, four were moderately wounded, and the rest were lightly hurt.
Aug 13, 2004 - Shlomo Miller, 50, of Itamar in Samaria was killed by a Palestinian terrorist who opened fire outside the settlement gate. The The Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility.
Aug 31, 2004 - Sixteen people were killed and 100 wounded in two terrorist bombings within minutes of each other on two Beersheba city buses, on route nos. 6 and 12. The buses were traveling along Beersheba's main street, Rager Blvd, near the city hall. Hamas in Hebron claimed responsibility for the attack.
The victims, all residents of Beersheba: Shoshana Amos, 64; Aviel Atash, 3; Vitaly Brodsky, 52; Tamara Dibrashvilli, 70; Raisa Forer, 55; Larisa Gomanenko, 48; Denise Hadad, 50; Tatiana Kortchenko, 49; Rosita Lehman, 45; Karine Malka, 23; Nargiz Ostrovsky, 54; Maria Sokolov, 57; Roman Sokolovsky, 53; Tekele Tiroyaient, 33; Eliyahu Uzan, 58; Emmanuel Yosef (Yosefov), 28.
Sep 22, 2004 - Two Border Policemen - Lance Cpl. Menashe Komemi, 19, of Moshav Aminadav and Lance Cpl. Mamoya Tahio, 20, of Rehovot - were killed and 17 Israelis wounded in a terrorist bombing carried out by a female terrorist at the French Hill junction hitchhiking post in northern Jerusalem. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 23, 2004 - Capt. Tal Bardugo, 21, of Jerusalem, St.-Sgt. Nir Sami, 21, of Jerusalem, and St.-Sgt. Israel Lutati, 20, of Neve Dekalim were killed by several Palestinian terrorists, armed with AK-47 assault riffles and hand grenades, who infiltrated the military post near the community of Morag in the southern Gaza Strip. Another soldier and a journalist were also wounded in the exchange of fire in which the terrorists were killed. Two Fatah-related terror groups and the Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 24, 2004 - Tiferet Tratner, 24, of Jerusalem was killed in her home in Neve Dekalim by a mortar strike on the Gush Katif settlement bloc in the Gaza Strip.
Sep 29, 2004 - Dorit Aniso, 02, and Yuval Abebeh, 04, both of Sderot, were killed by a Kassam rocket fired from Gaza while playing in the street. Some 20 people were wounded. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sep 30, 2004 - St.-Sgt. Gilad Fisher, 22, of Mitzpeh Hoshaya, was killed before dawn when Hamas terrorists, under cover of heavy fog, attacked an IDF lookout post east of Beit Hanoun in the Gaza Strip. Two other soldiers were wounded. The terrorists were killed.
Sep 30, 2004 - Shlomit Batito, 36, of Nissanit, was shot and killed by Hamas terrorists while jogging on the road. Sgt. Victor Ariel, 20, of Kadima, a medic, was killed by a grenade thrown by one of the terrorists as he ran to aid Batito. The terrorists were killed by soldiers.
Oct 06, 2004 - Pratheep Nanongkham, 24, a greenhouse worker from Maha Sarakham province in Thailand, was killed when armed terrorists infiltrated the hothouse area of Kfar Darom in the central Gaza Strip. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 7, 2004 - A total of 32 people were killed in terror bombings at two Sinai holiday resorts frequented by Israelis: 29 at the Taba Hilton and three at Ras a-Satan. Among the dead were 12 Israelis; over 120 were wounded. The Israeli victims at Taba: Assaf Greenwald, 27, of Ramat Gan; Hafez al-Hafi, 39, of Lod; Rotem Moriah, 27, of Tel Aviv; Tzila Niv, 43, and her two sons, Gilad, 11, and Lior, 03, of Rakefet; Oleg Paizakov, 32, and his wife Ludmilla, 30, of Bat Yam; and Khalil Zeitounya, 10, of Jaffa. The Israeli victims at Ras a-Satan: Michal Alexander, 27, of Ganei Tikva; Roy Avisaf, 28, of Kfar Sava; and Einat Naor, 27, of Kibbutz Zikim.
Oct 19, 2004 - St.-Sgt. Yair Nisim Turgemann, 22, of Kiryat Arba, was killed at an IDF base near Mevo Dotan in Samaria when Palestinian terrorist gunmen opened fire from Palestinian terrorist territory west of the community. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 21, 2004 - Sgt.-Maj. Moshe Almaliach, 35, of Dimona, a career NCO in the IDF engineering corps, was killed by a bomb explosion While conducting construction work on the Philadelphi road in the Gaza Strip. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 28, 2004 - Sgt. Michael Chizhik, 21, of Tiberias was killed and six other soldiers wounded in a mortar shell attack on an IDF outpost at Morag in the southern Gaza Strip. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Nov 01, 2004 - Three people were killed and over 30 wounded when a terrorist detonated himself at the Carmel Market in central Tel Aviv. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine in Nablus claimed responsibility for the attack, carried out by Amar Alfar, 18, from Askar refugee camp in Nablus. The victims: Tatiana Ackerman, 32, of Tel Aviv; Leah Levine, 64, of Givatayim; and Shmuel Levy, 65, of Jaffa.
Dec 7, 2004 - St.-Sgt. Nadav Kudinski, 20, of Kiryat Gat of the Oketz canine unit was killed by a bomb, along with his dog, when a booby-trapped chicken coup exploded northwest of the Karni Corssing in the Gaza Strip. Four soldiers were wounded in the exchange of fire while evacuating him. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 12, 2004 - Five IDF soldiers were killed and five wounded when a tunnel filled with 1.5 tons of explosives were detonated under an IDF post at the Rafah crossing, followed by the infiltration of the post by two terrorists who opened fire and activated another explosive device. Hamas and the Fatah Hawks claimed responsibility for the attack. The soldiers killed: Sgt. Araf Azbarga, 19, of Kseifeh; Sgt. Sa'id Jahaja, 19, of Arara; Sgt. Hussein Abu Leil, 23, of Ein Mahal; Corp. Adham Shehada, 19, of Turan; and Sgt. Tarek al-Ziadne, 20, of Rahat.
Dec 14, 2004 - Jitladda Tap-arsa, 19, a female agricultural worker from Udon Thani’s Nong Han district in northeastern Thailand, was killed and two other foreign workers from Thailand and Nepal were wounded by mortar shells fired at Ganei Tal in the Gush Katif settlement bloc from the Gaza Strip.
Dec 21, 2004 - Ariella Fahima, 39, of Moshav Nehusha, south of Beit Shemesh, was stabbed to death at the door to her house, apparently by a terrorist who infiltrated the perimeter fence.
Dec 22, 2004 - Salem (Sami) al-Kimlat, 28, a Bedouin from the town of Rahat employed as a security guard at the construction site of the security fence west of Hebron, was shot and killed by Palestinian terrorists. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 2, 2005 - Nissim Arbiv, 25, of Nissanit in the Gaza Strip was mortally wounded in a mortar shell attack while working in the Erez Industrial Zone. He died of his wounds on January 11. Two others were wounded in the attack, for which Hamas claimed responsibility.
Jan 7, 2005 - St.-Sgt. Yosef (Yossi) Atia, 21, of Petah Tikva, was killed and three fellow off-duty soldiers were wounded when Palestinian gunmen opened fire on their car on the Trans-Samaria Highway. The Fatah al-Aksa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 9, 2005 - An Israeli officer is killed, and three others injured, in a Hezbollah rocket attack along the Lebanese border (Shebba Farms).
Jan 12, 2005 - Gideon Rivlin, 50, of Ganei Tal was killed and three IDF soldiers were wounded when a bomb was detonated as a military vehicle patroled the route near Morag in the southern Gaza Strip. Two terrorists were killed by IDF forces. The area was booby-trapped with explosive devices, in addition to the bomb that exploded. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 13, 2005 - On Thursday night, shortly before the closing of the Karni Crossing, terrorists activated an explosive device on the Palestinian side, blowing a hole in the door through which Palestinian terrorists infiltrated the Israeli side of the crossing and opened fire at Israeli civilians. As a result of the explosion and exchanges of fire, six Israeli civilians and three Palestinian terrorists were killed, and five Israeli civilians were wounded. Hamas and the Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed joint responsiblity for the attack. The victims: Dror Gizri, 30, of Sderot; Ibrahim Kahili, 46, of Umm al-Ghanem; Munam Abu Sabia, 33, of Daburiyeh; Ivan Shmilov, 53, of Sderot; Herzl Shlomo, 51, of Sderot; and Ofer Tiri, 23, of Ashkelon.
Jan 15, 2005 - Ayala-Haya (Ella) Abukasis, 17, of Sderot was mortally wounded when a Qassam rocket landed near her and shrapnel penetrated her cerebellum, leaving her brain dead. She was struck while protecting her younger brother, who was lightly wounded. Kept on life support throughout the week, her parents agreed to stop treatment when doctors told them there was no chance of recovery. She died on January 21.
Jan 18, 2005 - Oded Sharon, 36, from Gan Yavne, an ISA officer, was killed, an IDF officer seriously wounded, and four IDF soldiers and three members of the ISA were lightly wounded in a suicide bombing attack at the Gush Katif junction in the central Gaza Strip. While search procedures were being implemented at a post at the junction, the suicide bomber with explosives strapped to his body detonated himself. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 18, 2005 - 17-year-old Israeli girl dies trying to protect her 10-year-old brother from a Hamas rocket attack (on 1-15 in Sderot).Feb 25, 2005 - Five people were killed and 50 wounded Friday night, when a suicide bomber blew himself up outside the Stage club on the Tel Aviv promenade at around 11:20 P.M., on the corner of Herbert Samuel and Yonah Hanavi streets. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
The victims: Yitzhak Buzaglo, 40, of Mishmar Hayarden; Aryeh Nagar, 37, of Kfar Sava; Yael Orbach, 28, of Rehovot; Ronen Reuvenov, 30, of Tel Aviv. Odelia Hubara, 26, of Jerusalem, died of her wounds on February 28.
May 2, 2005 - St.-Sgt. Dan Talasnikov, 21, of Nir Galim was killed and another soldier lightly wounded in an exchange of fire during an operation to arrest wanted terrorists from the Islamic Jihad in the village of Saida, north of Tulkarem. One of the terrorists, responsible for the February 25 suicide bombing in Tel Aviv, was killed. The second terrorist was apprehended.
Mar 7, 2005 - Two Israelis are wounded by a Palestinian sniper in Hebron.Jun 7, 2005 - Three workers were killed and five wounded when a Qassam rocket hit a packing shed in Ganei Tal, in the Gaza Strip, penetrating the building's roof and exploding indoors. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
The Chinese worker killed has been identified as Bi Shude, 46, from Jilin province in northeastern China. The Palestinian workers killed were Salah Ayash Imran, 57, of Khan Yunis, married and the father of 8, and Muhammed Mahmoud Jaroun, of Khan Yunis.
Jun 19, 2005 - IDF NCO Sgt.-Maj. Avi Karouchi, 25, of Beersheba was killed and two soldiers were wounded in a coordinated Palestinian attack in which RPG missiles and gunfire were fired at an IDF engineering force conducting construction work on the Philadelphi route along the Israeli-Egyptian border. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 20, 2005 - Yevgeny Reider, 28 of Hermesh was killed and a 16-year old teenager was wounded in a terrorist shooting attack in the village of Baka A-Sharkiya in the northern West Bank. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 24, 2005 - Avihai Levy, 17, of Beit Hagai was killed in a drive-by terrorist shooting at a hitchhiking stop about 200 meters from the entrance to Beit Hagai, south of Hebron. Aviad Mansour, 16, of Otniel, fatally wounded in the attack, died on June 26. Three others were wounded. The Islamic Jihad and Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jun 29, 2005 - Hezbollah attacks an Israeli position at Mt. Dov from across the Lebanese border, killing one and injuring three.
Jul 12, 2005 - Rachel Ben Abu, 16, of Tel Aviv; Nofar Horowitz, 16, of Tel Aviv; and Julia Voloshin, 31, of Netanya were killed and about 90 people were wounded when a suicide bomber detonated himself outside Hasharon Mall in Netanya. Anya Lifshitz, 50, of Netanya, who was mortally wounded, succumbed to her wounds on July 13. Cpl. Moshe Maor Jan, 21, of Netanya died of his wounds on July 14. The bomber was identified as Ahmed Abu Khalil, 18, from the West Bank village of Atil. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jul 14, 2005 - Dana Gelkovitch, 22, of Kibbutz Bror Hayil, was killed by a Qassam rocket fired at Netiv Ha'asara in the northern Gaza Strip. Hamas, Islamic Jihad and Fatah all claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jul 23, 2005 - Dov, 58, and Rachel Kol, 53, of Jerusalem were killed shortly after midnight on Saturday night near the Kissufim crossing in the southern Gaza Strip while returning home from visiting family in Gush Katif. Three others were wounded. The Islamic Jihad and Fatah al Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 3, 2005 - Palestinian terrorists fire a rocket at a group of Israeli demonstrators in Sderot. The missile hits their own group instead, killing a 3-year-old boy and injuring nine others, including five children.
Aug 24, 2005 - Shmuel Mett, 21, of Britain, a Mir Yeshiva student, was returning from the Western Wall to the yeshiva in Jerusalem’s Beit Yisrael neighborhood when he was fatally stabbed near Jaffa Gate in the Old City. Two other students were wounded.
Aug 28, 2005 - A Fatah terrorist detonated a suicide bomb in Beersheba, eight Israelis are hospitalized, including two guards that were seriously wounded.
Sept 21, 2005 - Sasson Nuriel, 55, of Jerusalem was kidnapped and slain by Palestinian terrorists. His body was found on Sept 26 in a garbage dump in the industrial zone of Bitunya, west of Ramallah. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Oct 16, 2005 - Matat (Rosenfeld) Adler, 21, and her cousin, Kineret Mandel, 23, both of Carmel, and Oz Ben-Meir, 15, of Maon were killed and three were wounded when Palestinians opened fire at the Gush Etzion junction south of Jerusalem. Another teenager was shot and seriously wounded near Eli, in Samaria. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for both attacks.
Oct 26, 2005 - Six people were killed and 55 wounded, six seriously, in a suicide bombing at the Hadera open-air market. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack. The victims: Michael Kaufman, 68, of Hadera; Pirhiya Machlouf, 53, of Hadera; Sabiha Nissim, 66, of Moshav Ahituv; Jamil Qa'adan, 48, of Baka al-Gharbiya; and Ya'acov Rahmani, 68, of Hadera. A sixth victim, Genia Poleis, 66, of Hadera, died of her wounds 11 days later, on November 5.
Nov 2, 2005 - St.-Sgt. Yonatan Evron, 20, of Rishon Lezion, was mortally wounded in a gun battle with terrorists near Jenin. He died en route to hospital.
Nov 21, 2005 - Eleven Israeli soldiers and one civilian are injured by a Hezbollah attack in Metulla, Northern Israel..
Dec 5, 2005 - Five people were killed and over 50 wounded in a suicide bombing at the entrance to the Sharon shopping mall in Netanya. The terrorist detonated the bomb when he was stopped by security guards, one of whom was killed. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack. The victims: Haim Amram, 26, of Netanya, a security guard at the mall; Alexandra Garmitzky, 65, of Netanya; Daniel Golani, 45, of Nahariya; Elia Rosen, 38, of Bat Hefer; and Keinan Tsuami, 20, of Petah Tikva.
Dec 8, 2005 - Sgt. Nir Kahane, 20, of Kiryat Tivon, was stabbed to death at the Kalandiya checkpoint, south of Ramallah. The assailant was apprehended. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Dec 16, 2005 - Yosef (Yossi) Shok, 35, of Beit Hagai was killed in a shooting attack while driving home in the southern Hebron hills. Two passengers were wounded. The Islamic Jihad and Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed joint responsibility for the attack.
Dec 29, 2005 - Lt. Ori Binamo, 21, of Nesher was killed when a terrorist en route to carry out an attack in Israel detonated himself at roadblock set up near Tulkarm following an intelligence tip. Two Palestinians were also killed, one the taxi driver who was carrying the bomber. Three soldiers and seven Palestinians were wounded.
Feb 5, 2006 - Kinneret Ben Shalom Hajbi, 58, of Petah Tikva was stabbed to death by a Palestinian terrorist while traveling on a number 51 service taxi to Tel Aviv. Five other passengers were wounded.
Mar 1, 2006 - Eldar Abir, 48, of Migdalim was killed when two Palestinian shot him at point blank range at the gas station near Migdalim in the West Bank. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 30, 2006 - Rafi Halevy, 63, and his wife Helena, 58, of Kedumim, Re’ut Feldman, 20, of Herzliya, and Shaked Lasker, 16, of Kedumim were killed when a suicide bomber hitchhiker disguised as an ultra-Orthodox yeshiva student detonated his explosive device in a private vehicle near the entrance to Kedumim.
Apr 17, 2006 - Eleven people were killed and over 60 wounded in a suicide bombing during the Passover holiday at the Rosh Ha'ir shawarma restaurant, near the old central bus station in Tel Aviv. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack. The victims: Philip Balhasan, 45, of Ashdod; Rozalia Beseneyi, 48, and Piroşca Boda 50, of Romania; Marcel Cohen, 73, of Nice, France; Ariel Darhi, 31, of Bat Yam; Victor Erez, 60, of Givatayim; Binyamin Haputa, 47, of Lod; David Shaulov, 29, of Holon; Lily Yunes, 42, of Oranit. Lior Anidzar, 26, of Tel Aviv died of his wounds on May 13. Daniel Wultz, 16, of Weston, Florida (USA) died on May 14.
June 11, 2006 - Marwan Abed Shweika, 35, of the Abu Tor neighborhood in Jerusalem was killed and two other Arab Israelis were wounded in a shooting attack while driving late at night West Bank highway north of Jerusalem.
June 25, 2006 - Lt. Hanan Barak, 20, of Arad and Staff-Sgt. Pavel Slutzker, 20, of Dimona were killed when terrorists from the Hamas and Popular Resistance Committees terror organizations infiltrated Israeli territory between the Kerem Shalom and Sufa crossings, by means of a tunnel dug from the Rafah area. Another soldier was abducted, and four others were wounded.
June 25, 2006 - Eliyahu Pinhas Asheri, 18, of Itamar was kidnapped by terrorists from the Popular Resistance Committees while hitchhiking from Betar Illit, southwest of Bethlehem, to Neveh Tzuf, where he was studying. His body was found on June 29 in Ramallah. It is believed that he was murdered shortly after his kidnapping.
July 17, 2006 - St.-Sgt. Osher Damari, 20, of Netanya was killed and six IDF soldiers wounded by an explosive device in Nablus as troops from the Haruv Battalion were engaged in anti-terrorist activity. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
July 27, 2006 - The burnt body of Dr. Daniel Yaakobi, 59, a doctor from Yakir in the West Bank, was found in the trunk of his car near Qalqilya. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Aug 10, 2006 - Angelo Frammartino, 24, of Monte Rotondo, Italy was stabbed to death by an Arab knifeman while walking with friends on Sultan Suleiman street in east Jerusalem. It is believed that the attack was a nationalistically motivated terror attack, and not an attempted robbery.
Aug 19, 2006 - St.-Sgt. Ro'i Farjoun, 21, of Yehud was killed when a terrorist opened fire at the Bekaot chekpoint in the Jordan Valley. The Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Sept 12, 2006 - An IDF reserve Bedouin tracker, 44, was killed by sniper fire in the course of an army operation to uncover terror infrastructure in the Gaza Strip, near the Kissufim Crossing. The armed wing of Hamas and the Popular Resistance Committees claimed responsibility for the shooting.
Nov 1, 2006 - Staff Sergeant Kiril Golenshein, 21, of Moshav Keshet, was killed by a sniper's bullet as his unit entered the town of Beit Hanoun in the Gaza Strip in pursuit of terrorists firing Kassam rockets at Israel.
Nov 15, 2006 - Fatima Slutsker, 57, of Sderot, was killed by a Kassam rocket fired into the town by Palestinian terrorists in the Gaza Strip. A barrage of six rockets hit Sderot at about 7 a.m., also seriously wounding a security guard for Defense Minister Amir Peretz.
Nov 21, 2006 - Yaakov Yaakobov, 43, of Sderot, died following a day-long struggle by doctors to save his life, after he was mortally wounded by a Kassam rocket fired in the morning by Palestinian terrorists in the Gaza Strip.Jan 29, 2007 - Three people were killed in a suicide bombing in a bakery in the southern city of Eilat: bakery employees and Eilat residents Emi Haim Elmaliah, 32, Michael Ben Sa'adon, 27, and Israel Zamalloa, 26. The Islamic Jihad and the Fatah al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 25, 2007 - The body of Erez Levanon, 42, of Bat Ayin in the Gush Etzion settlement bloc, killed by multiple stab wounds, was found near Beit Omar, north of Halhul. Security officials believe that the murder was terror-related.
May 21, 2007 - Shirel Friedman, 32, of Sderot was killed when a Kassam rocket scored a direct hit on a car near the town's shopping center.
May 27, 2007 - Oshri Oz, 36, of Hod Hasharon, was killed when a Kassam rocket landed near his car in Sderot. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
July 12, 2007 - Staff Sgt. Arbel Reich, 21, of Yuvalim was killed when Hamas terrorists ambushed IDF troops engaged in anti-terror activity in the Bureij refugee camp in the central Gaza Strip. The terrorists detonated previously planted explosive devices and then opened fire with rocket-propelled grenades and machine guns.
Sept 18, 2007 - St. Sgt. Ben-Zion Haneman, 21, of Moshav Nov in the Golan Heights, was killed in an exchange of fire with terrorists during IDF activity against a terror attack being jointly planned by operatives of the Hamas and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) terror organizations in the Ein Beit Ilmeh refugee camp in the West Bank city of Nablus.
Oct. 17, 2007 - Sgt. Ben Kubani, 20, of Hadera, was killed in an exchange of fire with terrorists during IDF activity targeting the terror infrastructure near Khan Younis in the southern Gaza Strip.
Oct 29, 2007 - IDF reservist St.-Sgt. Maj. Ehud Efrati, 34, of Beit Yehoshua was killed in an exchange of fire with Palestinian terrorists in southern Gaza Strip, near the Sufa crossing.
Nov 19, 2007 - Ido Zoldan, 29, of Shavei Shomron was killed in a shooting attack near Kedumim in the northern West Bank, when terrorists opened fire from a passing car at around 11:30 pm. The Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the terror attack as "an act of protest against the Annapolis conference."Dec 28, 2007 - Cpl. Ahikam Amihai (20) and Sgt. David Rubin (21), both of Kiryat Arba, were killed by Palestinian terrorists while hiking in the Hebron area. The two Palestinian terrorists turned themselves in to Palestinian General Intelligence in Hebron the same day in order to avoid being apprehended by Israeli security forces.
Jan 15, 2008 - Carlos Andrés Mosquera Chávez, a 21-year-old volunteer from Quito, Ecuador, was killed by a Palestinian sniper from the Gaza Strip as he was working in the fields of Kibbutz Ein Hashlosha. The Hamas Izz al-Din al-Qassam Brigades claimed responsibility for the shooting.
Jan 24, 2008 - Border Guard Lance Corporal Rami Zuari, 20, of Beersheva was shot and killed at a checkpoint at the northern entrance to Shuafat, north of Jerusalem. The Battalions of Struggle and Return, a previously anonymous offshoot of Fatah's Aksa Martyrs' Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack.
Feb 4, 2008 - Lyubov Razdolskaya, 73, of Dimona was killed and 38 wounded - Razdolskaya's husband critically - in a terror attack carried out by a suicide bomber at a shopping center in Dimona. A police officer shot and killed a second terrorist before he detonated his explosive belt. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack and praised it as an "heroic act".Feb 27, 2008 - Roni Yihye, 47, of Moshav Bitcha in southern Israel, a student at Sapir College, was killed Wednesday afternoon when a Kassam rocket exploded in a parking lot near the Sderot campus. He died shortly after sustaining massive wounds to his chest. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
Mar 1, 2008 - St. Sgt. Doron Asulin, 20, of Beersheba and St. Sgt. Eran Dan-Gur, 20, of Jerusalem were killed in an exchange of fire with Hamas terrorists during an IDF anti-terror operation in northern Gaza targeting rocket launchings. The gunmen reportedly fired mortar shells, antitank and RPG missiles at the soldiers.
Mar 6, 2008 - An IDF soldier - a Bedouin tracker, 27 - was killed during a routine patrol along the security fence in the central Gaza Strip, near Kissufim, when Palestinian terrorists detonated an explosive device near the jeep in which he was driving. Hamas and the Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the attack. St.-Sgt. Liran Banai, 20, of Ashkelon, the critically wounded jeep driver, succumbed to his injuries on Sunday, March 9.
Mar 6, 2008 - Eight students of the Mercaz Harav Yeshiva in Jerusalem were killed when a terrorist armed with a Kalashnikov assault rifle infiltrated the yeshiva and opened fire in the library where about 80 people were gathered, mostly teenagers. Eleven others were wounded, three critically. The terrorist, a resident of East Jerusalem, was killed by an IDF officer.
The victims: Segev Peniel Avihail, 15, of Neve Daniel; Neria Cohen, 15, of Jerusalem; Yonatan Yitzhak Eldar, 16, of Shilo; Yehonadav Haim Hirschfeld, 19, of Kokhav Hashahar; Yohai Lifshitz, 18, of Jerusalem; Doron Meherete, 26, of Ashdod; Avraham David Moses, 16, of Efrat; and Ro'i Roth, 18, of Elkana.
Apr 9, 2008 - St.-Sgt. Sayef Bisan, 21, of the Druze village of Jat in the western Galilee was killed in an exchange of fire with Palestinian terrorists in an overnight IDF operation against terror infrastructure in the southern Gaza Strip. Two soldiers were wounded.
Apr 9, 2008 - Oleg Lipson, 37, and Lev Cherniak, 53, both of Beersheba, were killed when Palestinian terrorists, after firing a salvo of mortars at the Nahal Oz area, penetrated the fuel terminal and opened fire on the civilian employees.
Apr 16, 2008 - Three IDF soldiers - Sgt. Menhash al-Banyat, 20, of the Bedouin community of Kseife in the Negev; Sgt. Matan Ovdati, 19, of Moshav Patish in the western Negev; and Sgt. David Papian, 21, of Tel Aviv - were killed in a confrontation with armed Palestinian gunmen approaching the Gaza security fence south of the Nahal Oz fuel terminal. Three other soldiers were wounded.
April 25, 2008 - Two Israeli security guards, Shimon Mizrahi, 53 of Bat Hefer and Eli Wasserman, 51, of Alfei Menashe were in a shooting attack in the Nitzanei Shalom industrial park in central Israel. A terrorist managed to infiltrate into the area, opened fire at the guards at close range and fled. The Al-Quds Brigades of the Islamic Jihad organization and Izzadin al-Qassam of Hamas claimed joint responsibility for the attack.
May 9, 2008 – Jimmy Kadoshim, 48, a member of Kibbutz Kfar Aza, was killed by mortar fire from the Gaza Strip while tending his garden.
May 12, 2008 – Shuli Katz, 70, a member of Kibbutz Gevaram, was killed while visiting relatives at the small settlement of Yesha, located some 15 kms (9 miles) from the Gaza StripJune 5, 2008 - Amnon Rosenberg, 51, of Kibbutz Nirim was killed and four other employees were wounded when a mortar bomb fired by Palestinian terrorists from the Gaza Strip exploded outside the Nirlat paint factory in Kibbutz Nir-Oz. Hamas claimed responsibility for the attack.
July 2, 2008 - Elizabeth (Lili) Goren-Friedman, 54; Batsheva Unterman, 33; and Jean Relevy, 68 - all of Jerusalem - were killed and over 50 wounded in a terror attack in Jerusalem. Driving a bulldozer on Jaffa Road between the Central Bus Station and the Mahane Yehuda market, the terrorist plowed into cars and pedestrians as well as two public buses (Egged buslines 13 and 60) carrying some 50 passengers. Police shot and killed the terrorist.

Pray for the Peace of Jerusalem

Our Father in Heaven, Rock and Redeemer of Israel, bless the State of Israel, the first manifestation of the approach of our redemption. Shield it with Your loving kindness, envelop it in Your peace, and bestow Your light and truth upon its leaders, ministers, and advisors, and grace them with Your good counsel. Strengthen the hands of those who defend our holy land, grant them deliverance, and adorn them in a mantle of victory.

Ordain peace in the land and grant its inhabitants eternal happiness. Lead them, swiftly and upright, to Your city Zion and to Jerusalem, the abode of Your Name, as is written in the Torah of Your servant Moses: “Even if your outcasts are at the ends of the world, from there the Lord your God will gather you, from there He will fetch you. And the Lord your God will bring you to the land that your fathers possessed, and you shall possess it; and He will make you more prosperous and more numerous than your fathers.”

Draw our hearts together to revere and venerate Your name and to observe all the precepts of Your Torah, and send us quickly the Messiah son of David, agent of Your vindication, to redeem those who await Your deliverance.

Manifest yourself in the splendor of Your boldness before the eyes of all inhabitants of Your world, and may everyone endowed with a soul affirm that the Lord, God of Israel, is king and his dominion is absolute. Amen forevermore.

The following video concerns a three day period of terrorist attacks in Israel. It is approximately six-minutes long and uses photos, video and text to show in no uncertain terms exactly what it is like after a terrorist attack. Please be warned: This video is very graphic and very disturbing. Yet, I believe it should be seen, that it must be seen. Know thy enemy.

If you cannot view the video, please return to the top of the page and click on graphic for the video. It is a large file and will take some time to open. If you have difficulties with it, please right-click and save it to your hard drive, that should do it.
The Aftermath of Releasing Prisoners:
As the government of Israel considers releasing palestinian terrorists it holds within its prisons in exchange for the release of Gilad Shalit, I urge the world to consider what happens when you negotiate with evil:

These are the faces of 177 Jews, all of whom were murdered by palestinian terrorists after the terrorists were released from Israeli prisons. When you consider what we know the aftermath will be, should Israel release more terrorists to obtain the freedom of Gilad Shalit?
Well, consider that we know the Israeli left will release those terrorists eventually anyway, as they have in the past, for the stupid, ineffective and meaningless negotiations with terrorists who want only to kill us. They have before, and they will again.
Gilad Shalit is only one life. But perhaps Gilad Shalit is the one Jewish life that can be saved.
Still, the terrorists will continue to kill us no matter what we do.
And... this exchange will surely encourage more kidnappings of more Israeli soldiers.
But then, there would likely be more kidnappings anyway.
I look at those faces, and I want to cry.
I could argue with myself all day about such things, one Jew, three opinions.
My solution? I would take the list of prisoners the palestinians want released, and I would execute one a day, until Gilad Shalit is released, or I run out of prisoners.
That way, the end result is a good one, either way.
But, that's just me.
Never Forget:

"The Palestinian people does not exist. The creation of a Palestinian state is only a means for continuing our struggle against the state of Israel for our Arab unity. In reality today there is no difference between Jordanians, Palestinians, Syrians and Lebanese. Only for political and tactical reasons do we speak today about the existence of a Palestinian people, since Arab national interests demand that we posit the existence of a distinct 'Palestinian people' to oppose Zionism." -- PLO executive committee member Zahir Muhsein, 1977

What the heck, let's give them a state, it will bring peace, right?
Wrong.
According to the most senior Hamas member in Gaza, Mahmoud al Zahar, the arabs are getting Gaza because their terrorism campaign is successful:

"Two years ago, Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon described the Gaza Strip settlement of Netzarim as a vital part of Israel's national security and now he is going to leave." That is because of the "effective armed struggle."

According to the most senior Hamas member in Gaza, Mahmoud al Zahar, its time for step two:

Zahar said the process needs to continue -- until Jews also leave the entire West Bank and all of Israel.
"They are going to leave [Gaza], not because this is a gift from Israel. This is because they failed to confront our people, so don't describe their withdrawal from here...as a gift for the Palestinians," Zahar said in an interview at his home in Gaza. "This is because they are defeated here."
Hamas will never recognize the existence of a Jewish State in the region, said Zahar.

CHINKS IN THE ARMOUR: INTERNATIONAL LAW, TERRORISM AND THE USE OF FORCE

2010-03-09T14:03:00.000+03:00

I INTRODUCTION
To the international lawyer, the question of the practical role of international
law in world politics is akin to a question that might have been posed by the
Sphinx. It is certainly a question that is difficult to answer. Moreover, as in the
case of the Sphinx’s riddle, some of the available solutions implicate the
potential for the demise of any international lawyer called to respond to it.
Recently, the threat of international terrorism has led to a fundamental reevaluation
of the relevance of international law in contemporary world affairs. It
can be seen as somewhat paradoxical that some have used the threat of terrorism,
not to call for a strengthening of the international legal order, but to press for its
abandonment, or radical overhaul. Certain politicians, jurists and other
commentators have predicted the collapse of the current international legal
framework,1 echoing in so doing the sentiment expressed by Jan Christian Smuts
on the occasion of the founding of the League of Nations: ‘The great caravan of
humanity is again on the march’.2 Even the United Nations Secretary-General has
acknowledged:
We have come to a fork in the road. This may be a moment no less decisive than in
1945 itself, when the United Nations was founded. … [W]e must decide whether it
is possible to continue on the basis agreed then, or whether radical changes are
needed.3
∗ Director, International Law Project, Gilbert + Tobin Centre of Public Law and Lecturer, Faculty of Law,
University of New South Wales. I gratefully acknowledge the suggestions and guidance of Professor
George Williams, Nicolas Burniat and Dr Thomas Poole in the preparation of this article.
1 Michael Glennon, ‘Why the Security Council Failed’ (2003) 82(3) Foreign Affairs 16; Anne-Marie
Slaughter, ‘A Chance to Reshape the UN’, Washington Post (Washington), 13 April 2003, B07; Richard
Perle, ‘Thank God for the Death of the UN – Its Abject Failure Gave Us Only Anarchy. The World Needs
Order’, The Guardian (London), 21 March 2003, 26; Michael Reisman, ‘Assessing Claims to Revise the
Laws of War’ (2003) 97 American Journal of International Law 82; Anthony Arend, ‘International Law
and Rogue States: The Failure of the Charter Framework’ (2002) 36 New England Law Review 735;
Robert Howse, ‘The Road to Baghdad is Paved with Good Intentions’ (2002) 13 European Journal of
International Law 89.
2 Jan Christian Smuts, The League of Nations: A Practical Suggestion (1918) 71.
3 Secretary-General Kofi Annan (Speech delivered at the General Assembly, 58th sess, 7th plen mtg, 23
September 2003) [3], UN Doc A/58/PV.7 (2003).
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 399
Faced with a mounting crisis of faith in the international system, the
international community is beginning to address a series of complex questions
about the continued efficacy of international law and international institutions.
Should the international legal framework be modified in order to keep pace with
recent developments while preserving its existing structure and character, or is
more radical reform needed? Has international law reached the limits of its
capacity to provide a framework in which international peace and security can be
fostered? Is global governance a viable aim that should be developed and
strengthened, or must it give way in the face of the reality of American
exceptionalism? And, in the case of the latter scenario, what might the
consequences be?
This article seeks to engage with the central question faced by the international
community in the current climate of turbulence and uncertainty: namely, whether
the scourge of terrorism is such a radical new threat that it necessitates a
reinvention, or even abandonment, of the current international legal order. The
question is approached through an examination of recent forceful responses to
terrorism. The ‘war against terrorism’ incorporates a number of renovations to
the existing international legal order. These include, in particular, fundamental
changes to what is arguably the most precarious aspect of international relations
– the rules relating to the use of force. The amendments that are being proposed
amount to violations of existing international law. Yet, these violations, should
they receive broad acceptance, may bring about the development of a new
international legal order. The article will first explore the framework established
at the end of the Second World War to protect the international community from
threats to international peace and security, and the capacity of this framework to
respond to threats unforeseen by the drafters of the Charter of the United Nations
(‘Charter’). Secondly, the article examines the international community’s
response to the threat of terrorism and, in particular, the more recent tendency to
resort to military intervention. The article will place contemporary policies for
the use of counter-terrorist force in their historical and legal context and, to the
extent they diverge from the current legal framework, consider whether they
create the foundation for a new international legal order.
II THE CHARTER REGIME: PROHIBITION OF THE USE
OF FORCE
The Charter governs the use of force by states in the international community.
At the core of the regime is the prohibition of the use of force, contained in art
2(4) of the Charter. Article 2(4) provides that ‘[a]ll Members shall refrain in their
international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial
integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner
inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations’. Certainly the language of
art 2(4) is ambiguous and open to interpretation. It is sometimes suggested that
the words ‘against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State’
400 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
may have a qualifying effect on the prohibition.4 However, this is not supported
by the travaux preparatoires (that is, the preparatory work and debates leading to
the drafting of the Charter) depicting the drafter’s intention behind the inclusion
of this phrase. The debates during the drafting of this provision indicate that the
phrase was not intended to be restrictive but, on the contrary, was merely
included to give more specific guarantees to small states.5
The text of the Charter,6 its drafting history7 and the writings of eminent
jurists8 suggest that the Charter was intended to be a complete description of the
circumstances in which force could be used in the international order. At the date
of the Charter’s adoption, the prohibition of the use of force was clearly intended
to be comprehensive, subject only to the express exceptions contained in the
Charter. As is well known, these exceptions are twofold. First, the Security
Council may authorise the use of force in response to ‘any threat to the peace,
breach of the peace, or act of aggression’ where it considers such force is
necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security.9 Secondly,
under art 51, states may resort to ‘the inherent right of individual or collective
self-defence if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations’.
The language of art 51 reflects that resort to self-defence is intended to be an
interim measure, permitted ‘until the Security Council has taken measures
necessary to maintain international peace and security’. Measures taken in its
exercise are to be:
immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the
authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to
take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore
international peace and security.
In this way, the object of the Charter was to render unilateral use of force,
even in self-defence, subject to control by the United Nations.10
Professor Louis Henkin described the Charter’s prohibition of the use of force
as ‘the principal norm of international law of [the 20th] century’.11 In the wake of
4 See, eg, Julius Stone, Aggression and World Order (1958) 95; Anthony D’Amato, ‘Israel’s Air Strike
Upon the Iraqi Nuclear Reactor’ (1983) 77 American Journal of International Law 584, 585; Jordan
Paust (1984) 78 American Society of International Law Proceedings 92.
5 Leland Goodrich and Edvard Hambro, Charter of the United Nations (2nd ed, 1949) 103, 104–5; Hersch
Lauterpacht, Oppenheim’s International Law (7th ed, 1952) vol 2, 154; Humphrey Waldock, ‘The
Regulation of the Use of Force by Individual States in International Law’ (1952) 81(2) Recueil des cours
de l’Academie de Droit International 455, 493; Ian Brownlie, International Law and the Use of Force by
States (1963) 267.
6 See Hans Kelsen, The Law of the United Nations (1950) 109. Kelsen notes that the combined operation of
art 103 and art 2(6) demonstrates that the Charter regime was intended to be the law not only of the
United Nations, but of the whole international community.
7 Goodrich and Hambro, above n 5, 106–7.
8 Max Sørensen, ‘Principes de Droit International Public’ in Recueil des Cours de l’Academie de Droit
International de la Haye (1960) vol 3, 101, 109, 240; Brownlie, above n 5, 113, 273; Bruno Simma,
‘NATO, the UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects’ (1999) 10 European Journal of International Law
1, 2. See also Statement of Mr Chaumont (France), Special Committee on the Question of Defining
Aggression, 25 UN GAOR, 36, UN Doc A/AC.134/SR.57 (1970).
9 Charter of the United Nations arts 39, 42.
10 Brownlie, above n 5, 273.
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 401
two horrific World Wars, international law’s traditional tolerance of the ‘just
war’ collapsed, and renewed appreciation of the horror of world conflict heralded
a regime in which war was recognised as inherently unjust. The Preamble to the
Charter reflects the level of war-weariness on the part of the international
community, expressing one of the principal ends of the United Nations to be ‘to
save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime
has brought untold sorrow to mankind’.
However, while the maintenance of peace was certainly a significant aim of
the United Nations, it would be inaccurate to depict it as the overriding aim. At
the first meeting of the First Commission of the San Francisco Conference – at
which the Charter was drafted and ultimately adopted – the President of the
Committee declared:
With regard to peace we feel the need to emphasise that our first object was to be
strong to maintain peace, to maintain peace by our common effort and at all costs,
at all costs with one exception – not the cost of justice.12
This qualification was ultimately included in the Charter’s Preamble, which
recognised that another of the principal ends of the United Nations was to ensure
‘that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest’.13
The prohibition of the use of force by states included in the Charter was not
merely a utopian aspiration, but was intended to form an integral part of a
broader dispute settlement and collective security system. The world order
established at the conclusion of the Second World War was based on two
interrelated underlying principles: first, to bring about the resolution of
international disputes by peaceful means using force only as a measure of last
resort and, secondly, recognition that the use of force would only be justified in
the interest of the international community, and not individual states. In light of
the fact the Charter was intended to be a complete description of the
circumstances in which force could be used in the international order,14 it can be
assumed that the drafters envisaged that ‘justice’ and the ‘common interest’ could
be protected and enforced by way of the exceptions expressly provided for in the
Charter.
However, state practice following the entry into force of the Charter evidences
that the drafters’ faith in the ability of the United Nations to protect and enforce
‘justice’ and the ‘common interest’ in this way was misconceived. Almost from
its inception, the body at the heart of the United Nations’ collective security
system, the Security Council, was compromised. As a starting point, the world
community failed to establish the machinery for collective security and
enforcement envisaged in arts 43 to 47 of the Charter. These articles provide that,
as soon as possible after the adoption of the Charter, the Security Council would
negotiate special agreements with the Member states for the provision of armed
11 Louis Henkin, ‘Use of Force: Law and US Policy’ in Louis Henkin, Stanley Hoffman and Jeane
Kirkpatrick, Right v Might: International Law and the Use of Force (2nd ed, 1991) 37.
12 Documents of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, UNCIO 1006
I/6, 2.
13 Charter of the United Nations Preamble (emphasis added).
14 See above nn 6–8 and accompanying text.
402 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
forces that could be called upon by the Security Council where necessary for the
purpose of maintaining international peace and security. In time, these articles
proved abortive. In addition, the escalation of tensions between the then Soviet
Union and the United States during the Cold War led to a deadlocked Security
Council, and a reclassification of the Permanent Members of the Security
Council as ‘Permanent Rivals’.15 This deadlock manifested itself in extensive use
of the veto power (vested in the Permanent Members by art 27(3) of the Charter),
which was used 276 times between 1945 and 1991. In the first decade after the
establishment of the United Nations, the veto was used 83 times (including 80
vetoes by the Soviet Union). In the decade between 1976 and 1985, the veto was
used 60 times (including 34 vetoes by the United States). By way of comparison,
the veto has only been used 15 times in over a decade since 1991.16
The flaws in the collective security regime were acknowledged at an early
stage by the adoption of the ‘Uniting for Peace’ resolution by the General
Assembly in 1950. Conscious of the failure of the Security Council to negotiate
art 43 agreements and of the paralysing effect of the omnipresent veto on
Security Council action, the General Assembly adopted a resolution resolving
that:
if the Security Council, because of lack of unanimity of the permanent members,
failed to exercise its primary responsibility for the maintenance of international
peace and security in any case where there appears to be a threat to the peace,
breach of the peace, or act of aggression, the General Assembly [shall] … make
appropriate recommendations to Members for collective measures, including in the
case of a breach of the peace or act of aggression the use of armed force when
necessary, to maintain or restore international peace and security.17
Some fairly creative methods of interpretation of the Charter must be
employed in order to justify the General Assembly’s assumption of secondary
responsibility for the maintenance of peace in this way. Under the Charter, the
Security Council is vested with ‘primary responsibility for the maintenance of
international peace and security’,18 while the General Assembly is merely vested
with the power to make recommendations with regard to the ‘principles of cooperation
in the maintenance of international peace and security’.19 Moreover,
the General Assembly’s power in this regard is expressly excluded in
circumstances where ‘the Security Council is exercising in respect of any dispute
or situation the functions assigned to it in the present Charter … unless the
Security Council so requests’.20 Shortly after the adoption of the Uniting for
Peace resolution, Hans Kelsen acknowledged:
15 Ruth Wedgwood, ‘Unilateral Action in the UN System’ (2000) 11 European Journal of International
Law 349, 351.
16 Changing Patterns in the Use of the Veto in the Security Council (2004) Global Policy Forum
at 15 November 2004.
17 Uniting for Peace, GA Res 377, UN GAOR, 5th sess, Supp No 20, UN Doc A/1775 (1950).
18 Charter of the United Nations art 24.
19 Ibid art 11.
20 Ibid art 12.
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 403
However the question may be answered as to whether and to what extent the
Resolution ‘Uniting for Peace’ is consistent with the wording of the Charter, it can
hardly be denied that the United Nations under this Resolution assumes the
character of an international organisation very different from that which the framers
of the Charter had in mind.21
While rarely resorted to today, the Uniting for Peace resolution remains of
interest as an early example of a manifest acknowledgement by the international
community that the black letter of the Charter can prove inadequate in the face of
the political vagaries of the international community. In recent times, this
contention has been repeated with more aggression and conviction than we have
seen previously. The old threat of nuclear confrontation between rival
superpowers may have passed, but has been replaced by the ‘new’ threat of
widespread and interconnected networks of terrorists who defy containment by
sovereign borders and seek weapons of mass destruction. President George W
Bush famously threatened the United Nations that its failure to authorise force
against a rogue state possessing such weapons would see the world body ‘fade
into history as an ineffective, irrelevant debating society’.22 In the face of action
against Iraq in the absence of United Nations authorisation, commentators
declared that, ‘[w]ith the dramatic rupture of the UN Security Council, it became
clear that the grand attempt to subject the use of force to the rule of law had
failed’.23 In his Separate Opinion of 6 November 2003 in the Oil Platforms case,
Judge Simma was prompted to remark:
Everybody will be aware of the current crisis of the United Nations system of
maintenance of peace and security, of which Articles 2(4) and 51 are cornerstones.
We currently find ourselves at the outset of an extremely controversial debate on
the further viability of the limits on unilateral military force established by the
United Nations Charter. … What we cannot but see outside the courtroom is that,
more and more, legal justification of use of force within the system of the United
Nations Charter is discarded even as a fig leaf, while an increasing number of
writers appear to prepare for the outright funeral of international legal limitations
on the use of force.24
As the following discussion seeks to show, a knee-jerk dismissal of the Charter
as dead parchment in the face of the threat of international terrorism is premature
and reactive. The lessons learned from the experience of two world wars,
including the need for severe restrictions on the use of force, are no less relevant
today. Moreover, like other constitutional and quasi-constitutional instruments,
the Charter is an organic document with a meaning that can evolve with the
international society it regulates. In such circumstances, it is tempting to embrace
the pragmatism of Rogers, who considered that ‘[t]he choice is not between the
Charter norms and chaos. The choice is between the Charter and other means to
21 Kelsen, above n 6.
22 George W Bush (Speech delivered at the Naval Station Mayport, Florida, 13 February 2003),
at 15 November 2004.
23 Glennon, above n 1, 16.
24 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v United States of America) (Merits) [2003] ICJ Rep 1, Separate
Opinion of Judge Simma [6].
404 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
fill in the corners of an incomplete canvas’.25 This has been evidenced in recent
times by states proposing and, at times, actively resorting to action that goes
beyond the narrow exceptions recognised in the Charter. Certainly, the principle
ex injuria jus non oritur – law cannot originate in an illegal act – was affirmed by
the International Court of Justice in Military and Paramilitary Activities in and
against Nicaragua (‘Nicaragua’) where the Court held that ‘instances of a state’s
conduct inconsistent with a given rule should generally … [be] treated as
breaches of that rule, not as indications of the recognition of a new rule’.26
However, the Court also acknowledged that this principle has important
exceptions such that ‘[r]eliance by a State on a novel right or an unprecedented
exception to the principle [of customary international law] might, if shared in
principle by other States, tend towards a modification of customary international
law’.27 In the international legal system, lawbreakers can sometimes turn out to
be lawmakers.
Eminent jurists have suggested that this principle is equally applicable in
relation to the interpretation of the Charter. Hans Kelsen noted that the Charter
may be changed, not only by amendments carried out in accordance with the
formal amendment procedure, but ‘also by its actual application based on an
interpretation which, more or less consistent with the letter of the law, is not in
conformity with the ascertainable intention of the authors’.28 This is consistent
with art 31(3)(b) of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties,29 which
provides that a treaty shall be interpreted with regard to ‘any subsequent practice
in the application of the treaty which establishes the agreement of the parties
regarding its interpretation’.
State practice may therefore lead to the development of customary
international legal exceptions and extensions to the Charter framework regulating
the use of force. The idea that customary international law may operate to
supplement Charter norms was recognised by the International Court of Justice in
the Nicaragua case,30 and was affirmed recently in the Oil Platforms case.31 In
the Nicaragua case, the Court expressly declared that the Charter exists alongside
and not to the exclusion of customary international legal principles:
25 William Rogers, ‘The Principles of Force, the Force of Principles’ in Henkin, Hoffman and Kirkpatrick,
above n 11, 106.
26 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America)
(Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14, 98.
27 Ibid 109 [207].
28 Hans Kelsen, Recent Trends in the Law of the United Nations (1951) 911. See also Thomas Franck, ‘The
Use of Force by States without Prior Security Authorization’ (Hersch Lauterpacht Lecture, Cambridge
University, 21–23 November 2000) 6: ‘What emerges from the vast legacy of recorded debates and
decisions of the principal political organs is that they tend to treat the Charter not as static formula, but as
a constitutive instrument capable of organic growth’.
29 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, opened for signature 23 May 1969, 1155 UNTS 331 (entered
into force 27 January 1980).
30 Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14, 94–7.
31 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v United States of America) (Merits) [2003] ICJ Rep 1, [42].
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 405
As regards the suggestion that the areas covered by the two sources of law [the
Charter and customary international law] are identical, the Court observes that the
United Nations Charter … by no means covers the whole area of the regulation of
the use of force in international relations. … It cannot therefore be held that Article
51 is a provision which ‘subsumes and supervenes’ customary international law. It
rather demonstrates that in the field in question … customary international law
continues to exist alongside treaty law.32
However, developments in the Charter regime must proceed with regard to the
long-term consequences of these developments. While the rhetoric of the ‘war
against terrorism’ has done much to legitimise the use of armed force in response
to terrorism on the political level,33 certain policies employed in the course of this
operation are not easily defensible from an international legal perspective. Legal
justification serves as an important supplement to political legitimacy: while
political justification need only satisfy the domestic conscience in the short-term,
legal justification cannot escape considerations of precedent and the long-term
effect on the international order. In considering proposed developments to the
regime governing the use of force, it is important to return to the two principles
underlying the Charter regime, namely that force was only to be used as a
measure of last resort to settle international disputes, and then only in the interest
of the international community, not individual states. While some may dismiss
these aims as anachronistic ideals, it is important not to forget the context in
which they originated, namely the previous generation’s experience of an
unacceptable level of bloodshed during two world wars. In a speech to the
General Assembly in September 2003, Kofi Annan urged states not to discard the
lessons which the generation founding the United Nations sought to enshrine in
the Charter:
The United Nations is by no means a perfect instrument, but it is a precious one. I
urge you to seek agreement on ways of improving it, but above all of using it as its
founders intended: to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, to
reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, to re-establish the basic conditions for
justice and the rule of law, and to promote social progress and better standards of
life in larger freedom. The world may have changed, but those aims are as valid
and urgent as ever. We must keep them firmly in our sights.34
III TOWARDS A NEW LEGAL ORDER? USE OF FORCE
AGAINST TERRORISTS
For all the talk of terrorism being a ‘new’ threat, it is clear that it has affected
states throughout history. As long as there have been causes to fight for, both
legitimate and illegitimate, terrorist tactics have been used to fight them. Both
international and domestic legal systems grappled with terrorism for many years
prior to September 11.
32 Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14, 94, 96–7, [181].
33 See the excellent article by Frédéric Mégret, ‘War? Legal Semantics and the Move to Violence’ (2002) 13
European Journal of International Law 361.
34 Annan, above n 3, [4].
406 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
Traditionally, the international legal community has regarded terrorism as a
phenomenon most appropriately classified as a crime, and best addressed by
establishing a co-operative scheme for the domestic prosecution of terrorist
offences. International law relating to terrorism is found in 12 terrorist
conventions, entered into between 1963 and 1999, relating to a range of
individual terrorist offences including attacks against aircraft,35 attacks on
government representatives,36 the taking of hostages,37 possession of nuclear
material,38 attacks against ships,39 attacks on fixed oil platforms,40 manufacture of
unmarked plastic explosives,41 terrorist bombings42 and the financing of
terrorism.43 States are in the process of negotiating a Comprehensive Convention
on International Terrorism, which seeks to apply the obligations under the
existing piecemeal conventions more generally. The conventions aim to prevent
and suppress a range of terrorist and terrorist-related acts by globalising the
regime for domestic criminal prosecution of individuals who perpetrate such acts.
They follow largely the same model between them, imposing a set of obligations
on states in relation to specific acts. These obligations are threefold: first, to
criminalise the act under domestic law, secondly, to establish jurisdiction for
their courts to hear infractions constituted by such acts and, thirdly, a duty to
‘prosecute or extradite’ suspected terrorists found within their territory. The aim
is the achievement of a world in which there is ‘nowhere to run and nowhere to
hide’ for those guilty of terrorism.
Alongside this organised international regime for the criminal prosecution of
terrorists, a more ad hoc practice of using military force against terrorists has
simultaneously developed. While this practice certainly predates the response to
September 11, the belligerent rhetoric of the ‘war against terrorism’ has given
35 Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, opened for signature 14
September 1963, 704 UNTS 219 (entered into force 4 December 1969); Convention for the Suppression
of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, opened for signature 16 December 1970, 860 UNTS 105 (entered into
force 14 October 1971); Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil
Aviation, opened for signature 23 September 1971, 974 UNTS 177 (entered into force 26 January 1973);
Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil
Aviation, opened for signature 24 February 1988, 1652 UNTS 499 (entered into force 6 August 1989).
36 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons,
Including Diplomatic Agents, opened for signature 14 December 1973, 1035 UNTS 167 (entered into
force 20 February 1977).
37 International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, 17 December 1979, 1316 UNTS 205 (entered
into force 3 June 1983).
38 Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, opened for signature 3 March 1980, 1456
UNTS 124 (entered into force 8 February 1987).
39 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, opened for
signature 10 March 1988, 1678 UNTS 221 (entered into force 1 March 1992).
40 Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the
Continental Shelf, opened for signature 10 March 1988, 1678 UNTS 304 (entered into force 1 March
1992).
41 Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection, opened for signature 1
March 1991, 39 SD 28 (entered into force 21 June 1998).
42 International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, opened for signature 15 December
1997, 2149 UNTS 284 (entered into force 23 May 2001).
43 International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, opened for signature 9
December 1999, 2178 UNTS 229 (entered into force 10 April 2002).
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 407
new prominence to the use of military force. Moreover, use of force is
contemplated beyond circumstances of self-defence, and extends to a number of
circumstances that do not appear to fit neatly within the current regime governing
the use of force in the international community.
The blueprint for the ‘war against terrorism’ is found in a publication of the
United States government entitled the National Security Strategy of the United
States of America44 (‘Strategy’). The Strategy expands the possibility for
unilateral use of force beyond the isolated category of ‘self-defence if an armed
attack occurs against a Member state of the United Nations’ currently recognised
by the Charter regime. In particular, the Strategy incorporates three doctrines of
questionable legality under the current international legal framework.
First, unilateral attacks against terrorist organisations and the states
harbouring them. The Strategy declares that it will disrupt and destroy terrorist
organisations, ‘defending the United States … by identifying and destroying the
threat before it reaches our borders’. While the intention is declared to enlist the
support of the international community, the policy warns that ‘we will not
hesitate to act alone, if necessary, to exercise our right of self-defense by acting
pre-emptively against such terrorists, to prevent them from doing harm against
our people and our country’. In doing so, the Strategy emphasises, ‘[w]e make no
distinction between terrorists and those who knowingly harbour or provide aid to
them’.45
Secondly, unilateral pre-emptive self-defence, or the unilateral resort to force
in response to a threat that is not imminent, but might materialise at some stage in
the future. Such action is regarded as particularly necessary against states in
possession of weapons of mass destruction who have demonstrated aggressive
intent with regard to other nations, and who it is suspected might pass these
weapons on to terrorists.
The third doctrine is unilateral humanitarian intervention, or the unilateral
resort to force to relieve a population from egregious human rights abuses. This
element of the Strategy springs from the rationale that danger can incubate in
weak, incompetent and/or profoundly corrupt states where transnational terrorist
groups can locate safe havens in which to plan, recruit, train and hide following a
terrorist attack.
Each of these bases of action will be considered in turn to ascertain whether
they comply with the current regime governing the use of force in the
international community.
A Unilateral Attacks against Terrorist Organisations and the States that
Harbour Them
Undoubtedly, if self-defence is an element of the regime governing the use of
force, most would accept that self-defence should be available to protect a state
against actual or anticipated terrorist attacks. The reality is that the self-defence
44 National Security Council, National Security Strategy of the United States of America (2002) The White
House at 15 November 2004.
45 Ibid 5.
408 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
exception is circumscribed by important limits, which curb the ability of a state
to use force against terrorists.
To explain the operation of these limits, it is helpful to have regard to the
United States’ response to al Qaeda’s attacks on the World Trade Centre and the
Pentagon on September 11. The reaction to the events of September 11 was
expressed rapidly in terms of recourse to force. According to National Security
notes,46 13 hours after the first plane hit the north tower of the World Trade
Centre, President Bush assembled his most senior national security advisers in
the conference room of the Presidential Emergency Operations Centre, including
Vice-President Dick Cheney, Defence Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, National
Security Adviser Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of State Colin Powell and then-
CIA Director George Tenet. The President informed his advisers: ‘This is the
time for self-defense. We have made the decision to punish whoever harbours
terrorists, not just the perpetrators’. George Tenet offered a sobering thought.
The CIA had been working on the al Qaeda problem for years, and Tenet noted
that this would involve action against 60 countries. President Bush is said to have
responded, ‘[l]et’s pick them off one at a time’.47
In the event, the response by the United States was more measured. However,
the action against Afghanistan in 2001 still tested the boundaries of self-defence.
On 7 October 2001, the United States Ambassador to the United Nations, John
Negroponte, wrote to the President of the Security Council to report that ‘the
United States of America, together with other States, has initiated actions in the
exercise of its inherent right of individual and collective self-defense following
the armed attacks that were carried out against the United States on September
11, 2001’.48 The letter explained that the United States had clear and compelling
information that the al Qaeda organisation had a central role in the attacks, and
continued:
The attacks on September 11, 2001 and the ongoing threat to the United States and
its nationals posed by the Al-Qaida organization have been made possible by the
decision of the Taliban regime to allow the parts of Afghanistan that it controls to
be used by this organization as a base of operation. … From the territory of
Afghanistan, the Al-Qaida organization continues to train and support agents of
terror who attack innocent people throughout the world and target United States
nationals and interests in the United States and abroad. … In response to these
attacks, and in accordance with the inherent right of individual and collective selfdefense,
United States armed forces have initiated … measures against Al-Qaida
terrorist training camps and military installations of the Taliban regime in
Afghanistan.49
In order to determine whether the use of military force against Afghanistan
was justified, it is necessary to return to the parameters of art 51 of the Charter.
Article 51 permits states to exercise their ‘inherent right of self-defence … if an
armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations’. By referring to a
46 Dan Balz and Bob Woodward, ‘America’s Chaotic Road to War’, Washington Post (Washington), 27
January 2002, A01.
47 Ibid.
48 Letter from the Permanent Representative of the United States of America to the President of the Security
Council United Nations, 7 October 2001, UN Doc S/2001/946 (2001).
49 Ibid.
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 409
state’s ‘inherent’ right to self-defence, the Charter encompasses the customary
international legal definition of self-defence, and the additional limits there
imposed.50 These limits were famously articulated in the Caroline incident,
arising out of an attack on an American ship, the Caroline, which was set alight
and sent over Niagara Falls by British troops during the Canadian Rebellion of
1837. Britain claimed that the ship was being used by Canadian rebels and their
American supporters in attacks against Canada, and that the attack on the ship
was made in self-defence. The letter from United States Secretary of State Daniel
Webster to Lord Ashburton of the United Kingdom has long been regarded as
containing the definitive statement of the right of self-defence under customary
international law. Daniel Webster expressed, and Lord Ashburton did not dispute
by return letter, that those claiming self-defence must show ‘a necessity of selfdefence,
instant, overwhelming, leaving no choice of means, and no moment for
deliberation’.51 Accordingly, beyond the express terms of article 51, the
lawfulness of measures taken in self-defence depends on observance of the
criteria of imminence of threat, and necessity and proportionality of the measures
taken in response.
The application of these limits to the use of force against Afghanistan raises
four important questions: (1) Was the action by the United States and its allies in
response to an ‘armed attack’ within the meaning of art 51? (2) Was the use of
force in response to an imminent threat? (3) Was the use of force necessary to
repel the threat? (4) Was the overthrow of the Taliban regime a proportionate
response?
All four questions raise controversial issues. The second, third and fourth
questions involve an application of the current legal framework to the particular
factual circumstances of the war against Afghanistan, issues that have been
explored in depth elsewhere.52 It is the first question that is of normative interest
in the sense that it raises the possibility of an extension to the current
international legal regime governing the use of force. The normative issue is
whether contemporary international law recognises an attack by a non-state
terrorist group to be an ‘armed attack’ within the meaning of article 51 which
would justify the use of force against that group, and any third state in which the
group is located.
50 Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14, 94 [176].
51 Letter from Daniel Webster, Secretary of State, to Lord Ashburton, 6 August 1842, reprinted in John
Bassett Moore, A Digest of International Law (1906) vol 2, 409, 412. The criteria of necessity and
proportionality were confirmed by the International Court of Justice in Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United
States of America) (Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14, 103 [194].
52 Pierre Klein, ‘Le Droit International à l'Épreuve du Terrorisme’ (course delivered at the Hague Academy
of International Law Lectures, The Hague, 11–15 August 2003); Michael Byers, ‘Terrorism, the Use of
Force and International Law after 11 September’ (2002) 51 International and Comparative Law
Quarterly 401; Olivier Corten and François Dubuisson, ‘Opération ‘Liberté Immuable’: Une Extension
Abusive du Concept de Légitime Défense’ (2002) vol 1, 106 Revue Générale de Droit International
Public 51; Christopher Greenwood, ‘International Law and the “War against Terrorism”’ (2002) 78
International Affairs 301; Jordan Paust, ‘Use of Armed Force against Terrorists in Afghanistan, Iraq and
Beyond’ (2002) 35 Cornell International Law Journal 533.
410 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
Until recently, many would have been content to construe the attacks against
the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon as ‘armed attack[s]’. However, the
International Court of Justice’s recent Advisory Opinion in the Israel/Palestine
case has undermined any conviction in that position. In that case, the Court
declined to recognise Israel’s capacity to rely on self-defence on the basis that
‘Israel does not claim that the attacks against it are imputable to a foreign
State’.53 The Court held that ‘[a]rticle 51 of the Charter…recognizes the
existence of an inherent right of self-defence in the case of armed attack by one
State against another State’.54 If this is the legal position (and it is important to
acknowledge the persuasive dissents of Judge Higgins,55 Judge Kooijmans56 and
Judge Buergenthal57 on this point), the law relating to the use of force has been
immune to the extension of international law beyond state relations that has
occurred in other areas, and remains distinctly state-centric. The complication of
this is that, unless the terrorists are located in the state launching the counterterrorist
attack, a state that consents to the counter-terrorist attack on its territory
or on territory outside the jurisdiction of any state, such as the high seas, any
counter-terrorist attack will constitute a use of force against the territorial
integrity of the state in whose territory the terrorists are located. Absent Security
Council authorization, this attack will be unlawful unless it can be established
that the state acted against has itself engaged in an ‘armed attack’ against the
state resorting to self-defence. The question then becomes: what level of state
engagement in a terrorist attack is necessary to implicate a state in an ‘armed
attack’ within the meaning of article 51 justifying the use of force against that
state in self-defence?
In answering this question, it is important not to confuse principles of state
responsibility with the right to resort to force against a state under article 51. It is
true that, under the rules of state responsibility, a state may be held responsible
for the conduct of a terrorist organisation where the organisation is in fact acting
on the instructions of, or under the direction or control of, that state in carrying
out the conduct.58 A state may also be held responsible for such conduct if and to
the extent that the state acknowledges and adopts the conduct in question as its
own.59 Evidence of statements by the Taliban,60 apparently endorsing the terrorist
acts, could have been used to impute legal responsibility to the Taliban for these
acts.61 However, while state responsibility may justify diplomatic, economic or
53 Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (Advisory
Opinion) [2004] ICJ Rep [139].
54 Ibid (emphasis added).
55 Separate Opinion of Judge Higgins, ibid [33].
56 Separate Opinion of Judge Kooijmans, ibid [35].
57 Declaration of Judge Buergenthal, ibid [6].
58 International Law Commission, Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful
Acts, UN GOAR, 56th sess, Supp No 10, [art 8] UN Doc A/56/10, (2001).
59 Ibid art 11.
60 See ‘Mullah Omar – In His Own Words’, The Guardian (London), 26 April 2001, in Byers, above n 52,
409.
61 United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v Iran) [1980] ICJ Rep
3, 36.
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 411
judicial sanctions against a state,62 it is overly simplistic to suggest that this
responsibility amounts to an ‘armed attack’ justifying the use of force against the
responsible state in self-defence.63 To find that a state has committed an ‘armed
attack’ justifying the use of force against that state, the test may be stricter than
the test for state responsibility for such an attack.
The International Court of Justice considered this issue in the Nicaragua case.
In that case, the Court was asked to determine whether Nicaragua’s support of
armed groups in neighbouring countries constituted an ‘armed attack’ against
those countries justifying resort to collective self-defence by the United States. In
its judgment, the Court held it was ‘necessary to distinguish the most grave forms
of the use of force (those constituting an armed attack) from other less grave
forms’.64 Referring to the Declaration on Principles of International Law
concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance
with the Charter of the United Nations65 the Court noted that, ‘[a]longside certain
descriptions which may refer to aggression, this text includes others which refer
only to less grave forms of the use of force’.66 Referring to art 3(g) of the
Definition of Aggression annexed to General Assembly Resolution 3314 (XXIX)
(‘Definition of Aggression’),67 the Court held:
it may be considered to be agreed that an armed attack must be understood as
including not merely action by regular armed forces across an international border,
but also ‘the sending by or on behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars
or mercenaries, which carry out acts of armed force against another State of such
gravity as to amount to’ (inter alia) an actual armed attack conducted by regular
forces, ‘or its substantial involvement therein’.68
In this way, the Court appeared to assimilate the phrase ‘armed attack’ with
that of ‘aggression’.69
Having regard to the Definition of Aggression, the use of force in self-defence
will be justified in response to a state which has ‘substantial involvement’ with a
terrorist group responsible for an attack.70 However, it is less clear whether force
will be justified against a third state which has a lesser involvement with a
terrorist group, for example, a state harbouring terrorists. It must be noted that the
failure to extend the Definition of Aggression to support for terrorist groups was
far from accidental, but was the subject of extensive debate within the Special
62 Paust, above n 52, 540; Michael Reisman, ‘International Legal Responses to Terrorism’ (1999) 22
Houston Journal of International Law 3, 35–6, 54.
63 See, eg, Corfu Channel (United Kingdom of Great Britain v Albania) (Merits) [1949] ICJ Rep 4, where
Albania was found responsible for damage to British ships by mines laid by Yugoslav warships, but
military intervention by the British in response was held to have been unlawful.
64 Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14, 101.
65 GA Res 2625 (XXV), UN GAOR, 25th sess, Supp No 28, UN Doc A/8028 (1970).
66 Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14, 101.
67 Resolution on the Definition of Aggression, GA Res 3314 (XXIX), UN GAOR, 29th sess, Supp No 31,
UN Doc A/9631 (1974).
68 Ibid 103.
69 This interpretation gains further force in light of the French version of art 51 of the Charter, which refers
to ‘une agression armé’, which can be interpreted in a broader manner than ‘armed attack’.
70 Charter of the United Nations art 3(g).
412 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
Committee for the Definition of Aggression, and was expressly rejected.71
However, since 1974, there have been transformations in the nature of
international society which may have led to a development in the position at
customary international law. For example, art 3(f) of the Definition of
Aggression provides that aggression includes ‘[t]he action of a State in allowing
its territory, which it has placed at the disposal of another State, to be used by
that other State for perpetrating an act of aggression against a third State’. In light
of the increasing sophistication of international terrorism, with terrorist groups
now recognised as capable of acts of aggression on a state-level, it could be
argued that art 3(f) should be extended to encompass states allowing their
territory to be used by terrorist groups. To ascertain whether this position has
garnered sufficient support to testify to its recognition under customary
international law, it is necessary to have regard to state practice.
Two states stand out in the international community as active supporters of the
right to use force against third states harbouring terrorists, namely Israel and the
United States. In order to ascertain whether there is a broader consensus on the
issue, it is helpful to look to the international community’s response to the
actions by these states. Until the mid-1980s, counter-terrorist force against third
states was almost consistently condemned as a violation of the prohibition on the
use of force. Nevertheless, since that time, it is possible to discern a decline in
opposition to, if not an increasing tolerance for, coercive measures against
terrorism, even where those measures violate the territorial integrity of a third
state.
Israel has used counter-terrorist force against Egypt in 1956, against Lebanon
in 1968 and 1982, against an Iraqi aircraft in 1973, against Uganda in 1976,
against Tunisia in 1985 and against a Libyan aircraft in 1986. Israel’s occupation
of the Sinai Peninsula in 1956, partly in response to cross-border infiltrations and
attacks by the Palestinian Fedayeen, was deemed disproportionate by a majority
of Security Council members,72 and repudiated by the General Assembly
(convened under the Uniting for Peace procedures) by a resounding 64 votes to
five, with six abstentions.73 Israel’s attack on Beirut airport in December 1968
was unanimously condemned by the Security Council by Resolution 262,74
though the United States qualified its vote by acknowledging in principle that a
state subject to continuing terrorist attacks may respond by appropriate use of
force to defend itself against further attacks.75 Interceptions of civilian aircraft in
71 See Report of the Sixth Committee, UN GAOR, 28th Session, 11, UN Doc A/9411 (1973): ‘it was found
unacceptable that the mere fact that the receiving State organized, helped to organize or encouraged the
formation of armed bands should constitute an act of aggression independently of whether or not it also
participated in sending them on the incursions. Nor was it acceptable, a fortiori, that by making its
territory available to such armed bands a State could be considered as committing an act of aggression’.
72 Draft Security Council Resolution, 749th mtg, UN Doc S/3710 (1956) (supported by a majority, but failed
to pass due to the veto of the United Kingdom and France); UN SCOR, 748th mtg (1956), 11 [71], cited in
Thomas Franck, Recourse to Force (2002) 55.
73 GA Res 997, UN SCOR, Fourth Year, Special Supplement No 3, UN Doc A/RES/997 (ES-I) (1956).
74 SC Res 262, UN SCOR, 1462nd mtg (1968).
75 The Yearbook of the United Nations (1968) 228, cited in Christine Gray, International Law and the Use
of Force (2000) 116.
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 413
1973 and 1986 were considered unlawful by a unanimous Security Council,76
though in the latter case, the United States vetoed the proposed resolution on the
basis that, although it considered Israel’s action unlawful, it agreed with the
general principle that ‘[a] state whose territory or citizens are subjected to
continuing terrorist attacks may respond with appropriate use of force to defend
itself against further attacks’. During debate in the Security Council following
the Entebbe incident, in which Israeli forces mounted a successful rescue
operation against a hijacked plane in Uganda, a majority of states expressed the
view that the action violated art 2(4) of the Charter.77 Israel’s attack against PLO
headquarters in Tunisia was vigorously condemned in Resolution 573 as an act
of armed aggression in flagrant violation of the Charter.78
By contrast, coercive counter-terrorist measures by the United States in more
recent times have received considerably less opposition from states in the
international community. The United States has taken counter-terrorist military
action against Libya in 1986, against Iraq in 1993, against Sudan and
Afghanistan in 1998 and against Afghanistan in 2001. While missile strikes
against Tripoli in response to the Berlin disco bombing in 1986 were not
supported by a majority of states in the Security Council,79 the United States
received a more sympathetic reaction to missile strikes against Iraq in response to
the attempted assassination of former President Bush by Iraqi agents in Kuwait.80
However, states were still reluctant to express support for a developing legal
principle with only Russia and the United Kingdom offering express support for
the United States’ legal argument.81 Opposition was markedly muted following
US missile attacks on a terrorist training camp in Afghanistan and a
pharmaceutical plant in Sudan in response to terrorist attacks on US embassies in
Kenya and Ethiopia. Sudan requested a meeting of the Security Council, but the
issue was not put on the agenda and there was only a very brief meeting with no
action taken.82
Of course, mere failure to condemn the United States should not be taken as
acceptance of a legal doctrine permitting force in these circumstances.
Nevertheless, it indicates a trend of increasing tolerance that has recently
culminated in a show of widespread support for an extension of the principle.
Following the military intervention by the United States and its allies against the
Taliban regime in Afghanistan, the Security Council expressed its unanimous
support for the action. In Resolutions 136883 and 1373,84 the Security Council
76 SC Res 337, UN SCOR, 1740th mtg, (1973); Draft Security Council Resolution S/17796.Rev 1, 6
February 1986.
77 UN SCOR, 31st sess, 1939th mtg, UN Doc S/PV.1939 (1976); UN SCOR, 31st sess, 1940th mtg, UN Doc
S/PV.1940 (1976).
78 SC Res 573, UN SCOR, 2615th mtg (1985).
79 The Yearbook of the United Nations (1986) 247, cited in Gray, above n 75, 117.
80 The Yearbook of the United Nations (1993) cited in Gray, ibid.
81 Ibid.
82 Ibid 118.
83 SC Res 1368, 4370th mtg, UN Doc S/RES/1368 (2001).
84 Resolution on International Cooperation to Combat Threats to International Peace and Security Caused
by Terrorist Acts, SC Res 1373, UN SCOR, 4385th mtg, UN Doc S/RES/1373 (2001).
414 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
reaffirmed the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence. In the latter
Resolution, the Security Council also reaffirmed ‘the principle established by the
General Assembly in its declaration of October 1970 (Resolution 2625 (XXV))
and reiterated by the Security Council in its resolution 1189 (1998) of 13 August
1998, namely that every State has the duty to refrain from organizing, instigating,
assisting or participating in terrorist acts in another State or acquiescing in
organized activities within its territory directed towards the commission of such
acts’.85
Support for the war against Afghanistan, coupled with heightened concern
about terrorism worldwide, leads to the conclusion that a modification of
customary international law can be said to have occurred.86 Support for the
legality of the action against Afghanistan was demonstrated by a wide number of
states.87 Only a limited number of states expressed their opposition, or
reservations, to the use of force in these circumstances.88 This is a clear example
of international law developing in response to contemporary threats to
international society, to the point where necessary and proportionate force may
legitimately be used in self-defence against a state which knowingly harbours
terrorist groups following a terrorist attack of the scale of an armed attack.
B Unilateral Pre-emptive Self-Defence
One of the most widely-discussed elements of the National Security Strategy
of the United States of America is the doctrine of ‘pre-emptive self-defence’. This
doctrine has been advanced more forcefully than ever89 by the Bush
administration out of a fear that rogue states acquiring weapons of mass
destruction will pass such weapons on to terrorists, with catastrophic effect for
the United States and its allies. The objective is explained in Part V of the
Strategy:
85 Ibid.
86 Byers, above n 52, 409.
87 See, eg, Resolution on Threats to International Peace and Security Caused by Terrorist Acts, SC Res
1368, UN SCOR, 56th sess, 4370th mtg, UN Doc S/RES/1368 (2001); GA Res 56/1, 56th sess, UN Doc
A/RES/56/1 (2001); North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (‘NATO’), ‘Statement by the North Atlantic
Council’ (Press Release 124, 12 September 2001); Organization of American States resolution CP/RES
796 (1293/01), 19 September 2001; Conclusions and Plan of Action of the Extraordinary European
Council meeting, 21 September 2001, 1,
.pdf> at 15 November 2004; Resolution on International Cooperation to Combat Threats to International
Peace and Security Caused by Terrorist Acts, SC Res 1373, 4385th mtg, UN Doc S/RES/1373 (2001). For
the positions of Angola, Australia, Canada, Chile, Cyprus, Croatia, Ethiopia, France, Israel, Italy, Japan,
Kyrgyzstan, Lithuania, Portugal, Romania, the Seychelles, Singapore, Sweden and the Ukraine, see
Centre de Droit International de l’Université Libre de Bruxelles, ‘L’intervention des Etats-Unis et du
Royaume-Uni en Afghanistan le 7 Octobre 2001’ (‘CDI extracts’),
fichiers/PEAP1.htm> at 15 November 2004.
88 See the positions of Belarus, Brazil, North Korea, Cuba, Iraq, Iran and Malaysia: Centre de Droit
International de l’Université Libre de Bruxelles, above n 87.
89 See George Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph (1993) 645–53. The need to act pre-emptively was previously
advocated by the former Secretary of State George Shultz in a number of speeches during the early 1980s.
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 415
Given the goals of rogue states and terrorists, the United States can no longer solely
rely on a reactive posture as we have in the past. The inability to deter a potential
attacker, the immediacy of today’s threats, and the magnitude of potential harm that
could be caused by our adversaries’ choice of weapons, do not permit that option.
… The United States has long maintained the option of pre-emptive actions to
counter a sufficient threat to our national security. The greater the threat, the greater
is the risk of inaction – and the more compelling the case for taking anticipatory
action to defend ourselves, even if uncertainty remains as to the time and place of
the enemy’s attack. To forestall or prevent such hostile acts by our adversaries, the
United States will, if necessary, act pre-emptively.90
Can the Bush Administration’s policy of pre-emptive self-defence be justified
under current international law? Alternatively, is there evidence of sufficient
state support for the formation of a new principle of customary international law?
Despite the claim in the above quotation that the United States has ‘long
maintained the option of pre-emptive actions’, the historical record indicates that
the United States had never, prior to the recent intervention in Iraq, engaged in a
pre-emptive military attack against another nation.91 The only occasion where
pre-emptive military action was seriously contemplated by the United States, but
not ultimately used, was the Cuban missile crisis of October 1962. This saw
President Kennedy impose a naval quarantine on Cuba in order ‘to interdict …
the delivery of offensive weapons and associated material’92 in response to
photographic evidence that the Soviet Union was installing medium-range
missiles in Cuba capable of hitting the United States. The United States
ultimately elected not to rely on the legal concept of self-defence for reasons
explained by the then Legal Adviser to the State Department, Abram Chayes:
In retrospect … I think the central difficulty with the Article 51 argument was that
it seemed to trivialize the whole effort at legal justification. No doubt the phrase
‘armed attack’ must be construed broadly enough to permit some anticipatory
response. But it is a very different matter to expand it to include threatening
deployments or demonstrations that do not have imminent attack as their purpose or
probable outcome. To accept that reading is to make the occasion for forceful
response essentially a question for unilateral national decision that would not only
be formally unreviewable, but not subject to intelligent criticism, either …
Whenever a nation believed that interests, which in the heat and pressure of a crisis
it is prepared to characterize as vital, were threatened, its use of force in response
would become permissible … In this sense, I believe that an Article 51 defence
would have signalled that the United States did not take the legal issues involved
very seriously, that in its view the situation was to be governed by national
discretion, not international law.93
In more recent action, the United States has expressly avoided language of
pre-emption to justify its action. This is apparent from its pleadings before the
90 National Security Council, above n 44, 15.
91 Richard F Grimmett, ‘US Use of Military Force’, CRS Report for Congress RS21311, (18 September
2002), at 15 November 2004.
92 Proclamation 3504, 27 Fed Reg 10401, 25 October 1962, cited in David M Ackerman, ‘International Law
and the Preemptive Use of Force against Iraq’, CRS Report for Congress RS21314, 17 March 2003
at 15 November 2004.
93 Abram Chayes, The Cuban Missile Crisis (1974) 63–4, cited in Ackerman, ibid.
416 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
International Court of Justice in Aerial Incident of 3 July 198894 and Oil
Platforms95 where it ‘went to great lengths to put its actions in the context of the
ongoing conflict and to portray them as a response to prior Iranian action’.96
The one significant case where a state did rely on pre-emptive self-defence to
justify its use of force was unanimously condemned by the Security Council, and
by over 100 states in the General Assembly. In June 1981, Israel bombed and
destroyed the Iraqi Osirak nuclear reactor near Baghdad. Israel claimed that ‘in
removing this terrible nuclear threat to its existence, Israel was only exercising its
legitimate right to self-defence within the meaning of this term in international
law and as preserved also under the United Nations Charter’.97 Israel was unable
to point to evidence of an imminent nuclear attack by Iraq against Israel. Instead,
Israel argued that the Iraqi reactor under construction was designed to produce
nuclear bombs whose target would have been Israel based on the fact that Iraq
considered itself to be in a state of war with Israel, that it had participated in three
wars with Israel in 1948, 1967 and 1973, and that it continued to deny Israel’s
right to exist. The international community came out in clear opposition to
Israel’s action. Resolution 487, passed unanimously by the Security Council
including the United States, ‘strongly condemn[ed] the military attack by Israel
in clear violation of the Charter of the United Nations and the norms of
international conduct’ and ‘call[ed] upon Israel to refrain in the future from any
such acts or threats thereof’.98 The General Assembly also passed a resolution by
109 votes to two (with Israel and the United States voting against the resolution)
expressing its ‘deep alarm over the unprecedented Israeli act of aggression on the
Iraqi nuclear installations on 7 June 1981, which created a grave threat to
international peace and security’. Many of those who abstained did so only on
the basis that they considered it was a matter for the Security Council not the
General Assembly.
This doctrine of pre-emptive self-defence must be distinguished from the less
controversial (though still contested) doctrine of anticipatory self-defence.
Anticipatory self-defence has a long history in international law. The most
celebrated example harks back to the Caroline incident referred to earlier, in
which self-defence was acknowledged to be justified in the face of a threat which
was ‘instant, overwhelming, leaving no choice of means and no moment for
deliberation’.99 The doctrine of anticipatory self-defence recognises that force
will be justified against an armed attack that is imminent. Some argue that the
language of art 51 put an end to the right to resort to force in anticipation of an
94 Aerial Incident of 3 July 1988 (Islamic Republic of Iran v United States of America) (Written Pleadings)
International Court of Justice, at 15
November 2004.
95 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v United States) (Written Pleadings) International Court of
Justice, at 15 November 2004.
96 Christine Gray, ‘The US National Security Strategy and the New “Bush Doctrine” on Preemptive Self-
Defense’ (2002) 1 Chinese Journal of International Law 440, 442.
97 Explanation of Votes on Security Council Resolution (1981) 20 ILM 994, 996.
98 SC Res 487, UN SCOR, 2288th meeting (1981).
99 Letter from Daniel Webster to Lord Ashburton, above n 51.
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 417
attack by its express requirement for an ‘armed attack’.100 However, as Professor
Franck notes, common sense, rather than textual literalism, is often the best guide
to interpretation of international legal norms.101 Indeed, it would seem an absurd
interpretation of the law if a state had to await a certain armed attack (which
could compromise its ability to respond) before it was entitled to defend itself.102
As has been said before, the Charter is not a suicide pact.
The doctrine of pre-emptive self-defence proposed by the Bush administration
moves the law one step beyond the doctrine of anticipatory self-defence.
Essentially, the proposed doctrine advocates removing the requirement for
‘imminence’ of attack from the current test for anticipatory self-defence. The
Strategy claims the right to act in self-defence ‘even if uncertainty remains as to
the time and place of the enemy’s attack’.103 The doctrine was actively employed
in the lead-up to the recent Gulf War as one of the early justifications for the use
of force against Iraq.104 In his speech to the United Nations Security Council,
Secretary of State Colin Powell made clear that the threat of an attack by Iraq
was not imminent. Rather, he expressed the need for military attack as part of a
long-term risk prevention strategy:
Given Saddam Hussein's history of aggression, given what we know of his
grandiose plans, given what we know of his terrorist associations, and given his
determination to exact revenge on those who oppose him, should we take the risk
that he will not someday use these weapons at a time and a place and in a manner
of his choosing, at a time when the world is in a much weaker position to
respond?105
The doctrine proposed by the Strategy is intensely problematic in that it does
not even appear to posit a requirement of ‘certainty’ in relation to future armed
attack. While rapid advances in weapons technology may mean that self-defence
can be utilised in response to threats that are less imminent in the temporal sense
than described by Secretary Webster over 150 years ago, the danger must be
imminent in that it can be identified credibly, specifically and with a high degree
of certainty.106 To extend the right of self-defence to enable states to defend
themselves whenever they felt threatened by the actions of another state would
100 Michael Bothe, ‘Terrorism and the Legality of Pre-emptive Force’ (2003) 14 European Journal of
International Law 227; Albrecht Randelzhofer, ‘Article 51’ in Bruno Simma (ed), The Charter of the
United Nations: A Commentary (2nd ed, 2002) 803; Yoran Dinstein, War, Aggression and Self-Defence
(1988) 184.
101 Franck, above n 72, 98.
102 See Derek Bowett, Self-Defense in International Law (1958) 185–6; Miriam Sapiro, ‘Iraq: The Shifting
Sands of Preemptive Self-Defense’ (2003) 97 American Journal of International Law 599, 602.
103 National Security Council, above n 44, 15.
104 See President George W Bush (Speech delivered at the 2002 Graduation Exercise of the United States
Military Academy, West Point, 1 June 2002),
20020601-3.html> at 15 November 2004; President George W Bush (Speech delivered at the United
Nations General Assembly, New York, 12 September 2002),
2002/09 /20020912-1.html> at 15 November 2004.
105 Secretary of State Colin Powell (Speech delivered at the United Nations Security Council, 5 February
2003), at 15 November 2004.
106 John Yoo, ‘Using Force’ (2004) 71 University of Chicago Law Review 26; Sapiro, above n 102, 604;
Abraham Sofaer, ‘On the Necessity of Pre-emption’ (2003) 14 European Journal of International Law
209, 221–3.
418 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
open the floodgates to the cycle of violence the Charter was enacted to
prevent.107 In response to the September 2004 school siege by Chechen terrorists
in southern Russia, Russian Chief of Staff General Yury Baluyevsky told
reporters, ‘[a]s for carrying out preventive strikes against terrorist bases, we will
take all measures to liquidate terrorist bases in any region of the world’.108 Israel,
North Korea, India and Pakistan are other states that could reasonably resort to
the doctrine, which would undoubtedly have a destabilising if not disastrous
impact on international peace and security. Moreover, it is a position which has
garnered little support among members of the international community,109 let
alone the widespread and uniform state practice necessary to establish a principle
of customary international law.110 Any attempt by states to rely on this doctrine
would be in clear violation of international law.
C Unilateral Humanitarian Intervention
A surprising and welcome aspect of the ‘war against terrorism’ has been the
renewed focus on regimes that violate the human rights of their citizens, a focus
stemming from a perceived link between these regimes and the incubation of
terrorism. A language of ‘rogue states’ and ‘failed states’ has emerged, with both
being branded as threats to the national security of the United States. As
President Bush expressed it:
weak states … can pose as great a danger to our national interests as strong states.
Poverty does not make poor people into terrorists and murderers. Yet poverty,
weak institutions, and corruption can make weak states vulnerable to terrorist
networks and drug cartels within their borders.111
The United States has thereby declared itself to be fighting, not only a ‘war
against terrorism’, but a ‘war of ideas’.112 A key aspect of the Strategy is to
extend the benefits of democracy, development, free markets and free trade to
every corner of the world. Specific measures that the Bush administration intends
to take to this end include ‘supporting moderate and modern government,
especially in the Muslim world, to ensure that the conditions and ideologies that
promote terrorism do not find fertile ground in any nation’113 and ‘diminishing
the underlying conditions that spawn terrorism by enlisting the international
community to focus its efforts and resources on areas most at risk’.114
107 See Brownlie, above n 5, 275.
108 Nicholas Kralev, ‘Russia Vows Pre-emptive Terror Hits’, The Washington Times (Washington), 9
September 2004, A01.
109 See, eg, Annan, above n 3, 4; ‘Russia, France, Germany Say Iraq War Illegal’, Reuters, 20 March 2003;
‘French Foreign Minister Renews Attack on US Foreign Policy’, Agence France Presse, 1 March 2002;
‘Patten Lays into Bush’s America – Fury at President’s “Axis of Evil” Speech’, The Guardian (London),
9 February 2002, 1.
110 North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of
Germany/Netherlands) [1969] ICJ Rep 1, 47.
111 National Security Council, above n 44.
112 Ibid 6.
113 Ibid.
114 Ibid.
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 419
While the use of force for humanitarian purposes can, and has on several
occasions, been authorised by the Security Council, the Strategy envisages the
use of force in circumstances where Security Council authorisation is not given.
Military action against regimes for the purpose of rescuing a population from
massive human rights violations, without the prior authorisation of the Security
Council or the consent of the legitimate government of the State acted against,
has attracted the legal moniker of ‘humanitarian intervention’. Such intervention
is clearly outside the framework of the Charter. First, it falls foul of the Charter
as it does not come under either of the exceptions to the prohibition on the use of
force – the force would be resorted to without Security Council authorisation and
could not constitute collective self-defence as the force would be used without
the target state’s request or indeed consent. Secondly, art 2(7) of the Charter
prevents intervention by the United Nations ‘in matters which are essentially
within the domestic jurisdiction of any state’.
Traditionally, supporters of the doctrine of humanitarian intervention have
been a vocal minority, battling against a strong current of authority to the
contrary, such as the Charter, subsequent reaffirmation of the principle of the
non-use of force by States115 and the International Court of Justice’s statement in
the Nicaragua case that, in the absence of any justification unequivocally
provided by the Charter, ‘the use of force could not be the appropriate method to
monitor or ensure … respect [for human rights]’116. Moreover, the straws of state
practice held up in support of the doctrine117 have easily been distinguished and
discounted by its resistors as examples of thinly veiled advancement of national
interest.
The doctrine received renewed support following North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (‘NATO’) air strikes against Serbia in the spring of 1999. In the
face of widespread and ongoing ethnic cleansing of the Kosovar Albanians by
Bosnian Serb forces, the international legal community found itself unable to act.
Self-defence was clearly not available, as the only state able to resort to this right
was the state perpetrating the genocide. The Security Council was deadlocked by
the threatened veto of China and Russia, a threat widely regarded to be based, not
on objection by these states to relief for the Kosovar Albanians, but on the
implications of this precedent for Taiwan and Chechnya. In these circumstances,
115 See Essentials of Peace, GA Res 290(IV), UN GAOR, 4th sess, 261st plen mtg, UN Doc A/Res/290
(1949); Declaration on the Inadmissibility of Intervention in the Domestic Affairs of States and the
Protection of Their Independence and Sovereignty, GA Res 2131(XX), UN GAOR, 20th sess (1965);
Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among
States, GA Res 2625 (XXV) UN GAOR, 25th sess, Supp No 28, UN Doc A/8028 (1970); Resolution on
the Definition of Aggression, GA Res 3314 (XXIX), UN GAOR, 29th sess, Supp No 31, UN Doc A/9631
(1974); Manila Declaration on the Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes, GA Res 37/10, 38th
sess, 68th plen mtg, UN Doc A/Res/37/10 (1982); Declaration on the Rights of Peoples to Peace, GA Res
39/11, 39th sess, 57th plen mtg, UN Doc A/Res/39/11 (1984); Declaration on the Enhancement of the
Effectiveness of the Principle of Refraining from the Threat or Use of Force in International Relations,
GA Res 42/22, 42nd sess, 73rd plen mtg, UN Doc A/Res/42/22 (1987).
116 Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14, 101 [268].
117 For example, the Congo (Stanleyville) rescue mission in 1964, India’s intervention in Bangladesh in
1971, United States’ intervention in Grenada in 1983, United States’ intervention in Panama in 1989 and
Iraq-Kuwait conflict in 1991.
420 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
the NATO forces launched military strikes in the absence of Security Council
authorisation.
The reaction by states in the international community is best summed up by
the finding of the Independent International Commission on Kosovo that the use
of force by NATO was legitimate, though not legal.118 States expressed support
for the NATO action, though largely on moral rather than legal grounds.119 Even
the NATO states avoided justifying the action in legal terms, with representatives
of key NATO states referring to the action as ‘sui generis’120 (in the case of US
Secretary of State Madeleine Albright), ‘an exceptional measure’121 (in the case
of the British Ambassador to the United Nations, Sir Jeremy Greenstock) and
emphasising that the action ‘must not become a precedent’ (in the case of
German Foreign Minister Klaus Kinkel).122 Subsequent debates on the issue in
the Security Council and General Assembly demonstrate that insufficient opinio
juris existed among states in the international community to support recognition
of a doctrine of humanitarian intervention in customary international law. The
majority of states continued to oppose the doctrine, insisting that the United
Nations must maintain primacy and control in the area of conflict resolution123
and proffering enhanced political will in the Security Council124 and
implementation of the broadly supported Brahimi report125 as the solution to the
118 Independent International Commission on Kosovo, ‘The Kosovo Report’ (1st ed, 2001).
119 See statements of United States, Canada, Slovenia, Bahrain, Gambia, Netherlands, France, United
Kingdom, Germany, Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina: United Nations, ‘Nato Action against Serbian
Military Targets Prompts Divergent Views As Security Council Holds Urgent Meeting On Situation in
Kosovo’ (Press Release, 24 March 1999) UN Doc SC/6657,
19990324.sc6657.html> at 15 November 2004.
120 US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, ‘Press Conference with the Russian Foreign Minister Igor
Ivanov’ (Singapore, 26 July 1999) Department of State, United States of America
gov/www/statements/1999/990726b.html> at 15 November 2004.
121 Above, n 119, 10.
122 Statement of German Foreign Minister Kinkel, Deutscher Bundestag, Plenarprotokoll 13/248, 16 October
1998, 23, 129.
123 See comments of Russia and Cuba in Fourth Committee debate on comprehensive review of
peacekeeping operations, (UN Press Release, 9 November 2000) GA/SPD/200
/Press/docs/2000/20001109.gaspd200.doc.html> at 15 November 2004; (UN Press Release, 10 November
2000) GA/SPD/202 at 15
November 2004. For the comments of China, the Philippines, Slovenia, Cuba in response to the UN
Secretary-General’s Report on the Work of the Organization, UN Doc A/55/1 Supplement 1, see (2000)
(UN Press Release, 27 September 2000) GA/9781
20000927.ga9781.doc.html> at 15 November 2004; (UN Press Release, 27 September 2000) GA/9782
at 15 November 2004; For the
comments of Tunisia and Estonia at the Millennium Summit see (UN Press Release, 7 September 2000)
GA/9754 at 15 November 2004.
For the comments of Belarus, Mongolia, Cuba, Mexico, Russian Federation, Algeria, Croatia and Iran in
Fourth Committee debate on the concept of humanitarian intervention see (UN Press Release, 20 October
1999) GA/SPD/166 at 15
November 2004.
124 See comments of Pakistan, Brazil, India, Tanzania and Chile in Fourth Committee debate on
comprehensive review of peacekeeping operations, GA/SPD/200 and GA/SPD/202, above n 123.
125 See comments of Norway, Ireland, Colombia, Kuwait, Japan, Bhutan, Germany, United Arab Emirates,
Egypt, Cameroon, Tunisia and Belgium in response to the UN Secretary-General’s Report on the Work of
the Organization, UN Doc A/55/1 Supplement 1 (2000) GA/9781 and GA/9782, above n 123.
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 421
current inertia in conflict situations. Smaller states remained suspicious that
humanitarian intervention was a Trojan horse that would be used to achieve
Western domination.126 Larger states feared that acceptance of such a doctrine
would ultimately give rise to a duty to intervene, whenever a humanitarian crisis
occurs, to prevent or ameliorate the crisis.127 Their preference was to maintain the
flexibility to intervene in crises where it was commensurate with their national
interest, but retain the freedom to stay out where it was not.
Importantly, though, this opposition did not appear to reflect any broadly held
view that the sovereignty of the target state stands higher in the scale of values of
contemporary international society than the human rights of its inhabitants.128
Over the last 50 years, there has been a tectonic shift in international
consciousness regarding the significance of human rights. Certainly the Charter
regime was never initially intended to be utilised for the protection and
enforcement of human rights. John P Humphrey, the first Director of the Division
of Human Rights at the UN, reported that, but for the efforts of a few deeply
committed delegates, and the representatives of some 42 private organisations
brought in as consultants by the United States, human rights would have received
‘only a passing reference’ in the Charter.129 In the end, the Charter is clearly
directed to the preservation of order, not the protection of human rights. Even the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations General
Assembly in 1948 was denied legal weight and, on the occasion of its adoption,
Eleanor Roosevelt stated that it ‘was not a treaty or international agreement and
did not impose legal obligations’.130 The barest enforcement mechanism, the right
to petition the United Nations, was ultimately removed from the final draft of the
Universal Declaration on Human Rights at the request of the United Kingdom.131
Over the following decades, the international community gradually
strengthened its resolve to actively protect human rights. A raft of legally binding
international human rights treaties has been entered into by a consistently wide
number of states, defining extensive rights. Protection of human rights has
become a central concern of the international community in spite of the Charter’s
apparent overriding concern for the maintenance of international order and nonintervention
in domestic affairs. Indeed, protection of human rights has been
found to intersect with preservation of international order, in that oppressed or
threatened individuals or groups are driven to violence and other drastic forms of
126 UN Press Release, above n 119, 189.
127 Adam Roberts, ‘NATO’s “Humanitarian War” over Kosovo’ (1999) 41 Survival 102, 120.
128 See comments of Cyprus (cf comments of Democratic People’s Republic of Korea) in response to the UN
Secretary-General’s Report on the Work of the Organization UN Doc A/55/1 Supplement 1 (2000)
GA/9781, above n 123; comments of Liechtenstein in Fourth Committee debate on comprehensive review
of peacekeeping operations, GA/SPD/202, above n 123.
129 John Humphrey, ‘The UN Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ in Evan Luard (ed),
The International Protection of Human Rights (1967) 39, cited by Tom Farer and Felice Gaer in ‘The UN
and Human Rights: At the End of the Beginning’ in Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury (eds), United
Nations, Divided World (1993) 245.
130 2 UN GAOR (Pt 1, 3rd Committee) (1948), 32.
131 Howard Tolley, ‘The Concealed Crack in the Citadel: The United Nations Commission on Human Rights’
Response to Confidential Communications’ (1984) 6 Human Rights Quarterly 422, 423.
422 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
action in attempts to relieve their suffering. In recent years, the Security Council
has shown an increasing tendency to recognise large-scale violations of human
rights committed within the borders of an individual country to be threats to
international peace and security justifying action under ch VII of the Charter.132
On occasions, this has been justified on the basis that the destabilisation in a
country has international dimensions, such as flows of refugees or the threat of
hostilities spreading to other countries.133 However, during the 1990s, in
Somalia134, Rwanda135, Haiti136 and Zaire,137 the Security Council authorised
intervention in an internal conflict under Chapter VII without even invoking the
possible international dimensions of the conflict.
Contemporaneously, there has been a diminution in the significance of the
state and sovereignty as a limit upon the capacity of the international community
to protect human rights. The growing importance of human rights and the
diminishing deference to state sovereignty are not unrelated.138 Contemporary
international society recognises that the concept of sovereignty evokes
responsibilities towards the international community as well as rights against it,
such that a state no longer has a monopoly over the decision whether to accord
human rights to its citizens.139 In its report, The Responsibility to Protect, which
was commissioned to form the basis of a push for state consensus on the
132 For example, during the anti-apartheid campaigns of the 1980s, the United Nations committed itself to the
implementation of human rights with respect to South Africa, rejecting claims of sovereign rights.
133 An obvious example is the humanitarian crisis in the Congo that emerged in the immediate aftermath of
the 14 week civil war in Rwanda in 1994, during which an estimated 1.7 million Hutu fled across the
border into neighbouring Zaire (now Democratic Republic of the Congo), including Hutu militiamen who
began waging guerrilla warfare from Zaire, giving the civil conflict manifestly international dimensions.
134 Resolution on Measures to Establish a Secure Environment for Humanitarian Relief Operations in
Somalia, SC Res 794, UN SCOR, 47th sess, 3145th mtg, UN Doc S/Res/794 (1992): ‘the magnitude of the
human tragedy caused by the conflict in Somalia, further exacerbated by the obstacles being created to the
distribution of humanitarian assistance, constitutes a threat to international peace and security’.
135 Resolution on Establishment of a Temporary Multinational Operation for Humanitarian Purposes in
Rwanda until the Deployment of the Expanded UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda, SC Res 929, UN
SCOR, 49th sess, 3392nd mtg, UN Doc S/Res/929 (1994): ‘the magnitude of the humanitarian crisis in
Rwanda constitutes a threat to peace and security in the region’.
136 Resolution on Authorization to Form a Multinational Force under Unified Command and Control to
Restore the Legitimately Elected President and Authorities of the Government of Haiti and Extension of
the Mandate of the UN Mission in Haiti, SC Res 940, UN SCOR, 49th sess, 3413 mtg, UN Doc S/Res/940
(1994): ‘concerned by the significant further deterioration of the humanitarian situation in Haiti, in
particular the continuing escalation by the illegal de facto regime of systematic violations of civil
liberties, the desperate plight of Haitian refugees and the recent expulsion of the staff of the International
Civilian Mission’.
137 Resolution on Establishment of a Multinational Humanitarian Intervention Force for the Great Lakes
Region, SC Res 1080, UN SCOR, 51st sess, 3713 mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1080 (1996).
138 Louis Sohn, ‘The New International Law: Protection of the Rights of Individuals Rather than States’
(1982) 32 American University Law Review 1.
139 Three generations of Secretary-General have reflected this outlook: see Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Report of
the Secretary-General, Yearbook of the United Nations 1991, [11]; Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Provisional
Records of the 3046th mtg of the Security Council, 47th sess, UN Doc S/PV.3046 (31 January 1992); Kofi
Annan, (UN Press Release, 20 September 1999) SG/SM/7136, GA/9596
Press/docs/1999/19990920.sgsm7136.html at 15 November 2004>. For early authoritative statements of
this principle, see Hugo Grotius, On the War of Law and Peace (1646) bk 2, ch 4, [2.1] and Emmerich de
Vattel, The Law of Nations (1758) bk 2, ch 2, s 17.
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 423
principle of humanitarian intervention, the International Commission on
Intervention and State Sovereignty confirmed this changing conception of
sovereignty on the part of states:
in the course of our consultations … [w]e found broad willingness to accept the
idea that the responsibility to protect its people from killing and other grave harm
was the most basic and fundamental of all the responsibilities that sovereignty
imposes – and that if a state cannot or will not protect its people from such harm,
then coercive intervention for human protection purposes, including ultimately
military intervention, by others in the international community may be warranted in
extreme cases. We found broad support, in other words, for the core principle
identified in this report, the idea of the responsibility to protect.140
Accordingly, the legal landscape is certainly open to the recognition of a
doctrine of humanitarian intervention. The one thing lacking in the aftermath of
the NATO intervention in Kosovo was a broader acceptance on the part of states
necessary to breathe life into the principle. Surprisingly, impetus for recognition
of the principle has emerged in a new form, cloaked in the rather unlikely guise
of counter-terrorism. In the course of the ‘war against terrorism’, human rights
concerns have already been pressed as a contributing basis for the overthrow of
two regimes by recourse to military force – the Taliban regime in Afghanistan
and Saddam Hussein’s regime in Iraq. While humanitarian concerns were not the
primary motivation for either action, and humanitarian intervention was never
formally asserted as a justification, the human rights motivation is arguably a
necessary element to justify the toppling of the Taliban regime (a consequence
which otherwise might have exceeded the bounds of proportionate self-defence).
Further, against the backdrop of a continuing failure to locate weapons of mass
destruction, the liberation of the Iraqi population has become the rationale most
strongly advocated in support of the 2003 Gulf War.
The doctrine of humanitarian intervention has not yet garnered sufficient
support to claim recognition as a principle of customary international law.
However, if states do seek, in future, to rely on the principle of humanitarian
intervention, they cannot ignore that the principle has important limits. While
there is no consensus as to the criteria for evaluating when intervention will be
‘humanitarian’, six fundamental requirements can be distilled from the literature:
1. Gravity of human rights abuse – the level of human rights abuse must have
reached a qualitative and quantitative level that has variously been
described as ‘severe violations of international human rights … on a
sustained basis’,141 ‘serious and irreparable harm [amounting to] large
scale loss of life … or large scale “ethnic cleansing”’142 and ‘ongoing or
imminent genocide, or comparable mass slaughter or loss of life’.143
140 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect (2001) 69.
141 United Nations, above n 119, 193.
142 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, above n 140, XII.
143 Kenneth Roth, ‘War in Iraq: Not Humanitarian Intervention’, Human Rights Watch World Report 2004, 2
(2004) at 15 November 2004.
424 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
2. Inefficacy of Security Council – the Security Council must be unable to act
due to an unreasonable deadlock or delay, and must not have explicitly
prohibited intervention.144
3. Necessity of military action – Intervention is only permissible when the
danger to the individuals concerned is imminent or ongoing, and every
non-military option for the prevention of the crisis has been explored and
determined to be insufficient.145
4. Proportionality of action – The action must have a ‘reasonable’146 or
‘high’147 chance of success, do more good than harm,148 employ the
minimum amount of force calculated to accomplish the objective149 and
must be discontinued as soon as this objective is achieved.150
5. Acceptability by international community, in particular from countries in
the region and those for whom the action is intended.151
6. Genuine humanitarian intention – The intervention must be for the sole,152
‘primary’,153 ‘dominant’,154 or ‘overriding’155 purpose of restoring respect
for human rights.156
If we apply these principles to the recent intervention by the coalition of the
willing in the 2003 Gulf War, the narrow scope of the principle is brought into
stark relief. Though Saddam Hussein’s regime was undoubtedly one in which
144 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, above n 140, XII–XIII.
145 United Nations, above n 119, 193 (suggests this includes the taking of economic sanctions); Advisory
Committee on Issues of Public International Law and the Advisory Council on International Affairs,
Humanitarian Intervention, Advisory Report No 13 (2000) 29–30; Scheveningen Seminar on
Humanitarian Intervention, Chairman’s Conclusions (24–26 November 1999), criterion (4) (affirmed in
Noordwijk Seminar on Humanitarian Intervention, Chairman’s Conclusions (16–19 April 2000));
Antonio Cassese, ‘Ex Iniuria ius Oritur: Are we Moving towards International Legitimation of Forcible
Humanitarian Countermeasures in the World Community?’ (1999) 10 European Journal of International
Law 23, 27; David Scheffer, ‘Toward a Modern Doctrine of Humanitarian Intervention’ (1992) 23
University of Toledo Law Review 253, 291; Richard Lillich, ‘Forcible Self-Help by States to Protect
Human Rights’ (1967) 53 Iowa Law Review 325, 347.
146 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, above n 140, XIII; Simon Chesterman,
Just War or Just Peace? (2001) 380.
147 Scheveningen Seminar on Humanitarian Intervention, above n 145, criterion (10).
148 Roth, above n 143, 3; Chesterman, above n 146, 380.
149 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, above n 140, XII.
150 United Nations, above n 119, 194; Advisory Committee on Issues of Public International Law and the
Advisory Council on International Affairs, above n 145; Cassese, above n 145, 27; Lillich, above n 145,
350.
151 United Nations, above n 119, 193–4; Scheveningen Seminar on Humanitarian Intervention, above n 145,
criteria (8), (9); Cassese, above n 145, 27.
152 Scheveningen Seminar on Humanitarian Intervention, above n 145, criterion 7; Cassese, above n 145, 27.
153 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, above n 140, XII; Advisory Committee
on Issues of Public International Law and the Advisory Council on International Affairs, above n 145, 30;
Scheffer, above n 145, 291.
154 Roth, above n 143, 2.
155 United Nations, above n 119, 193.
156 Chesterman, above n 146, 380; Lillich, above n 145, 350; cf Sean Murphy, Humanitarian Intervention:
The United Nations is an Evolving World Order (1996) 385 (this criterion is controversial).
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 425
human rights were egregiously violated, it is unlikely that the strict requirements
of the principle of humanitarian intervention were satisfied at the time of the
intervention in March 2003. First, there was no known genocide or mass killing
occurring at the time of the intervention. Secondly, it is arguable that the Security
Council was not unreasonably deadlocked, but rather declined to authorise force
based on a genuine assessment by a majority of the Council that force would not
be justified in the circumstances. Certain members of the Security Council
expressed a desire to address the situation through other measures.
This brief analysis, though inadequate, does suggest that, while the parameters
of the principle are still very much in development, and insufficient state will
exists to recognise the principle as customary international law, the principle
could form a workable part of the international legal framework where
limitations are incorporated to ensure against its over-use and abuse.
IV CONCLUSION
In responding to the threat of international terrorism, international law has
been found wanting. Powerful states, frustrated with the limitations placed by
international law on their capacity to respond, have condemned international law
as out-dated and ill-equipped to deal with contemporary threats to international
peace and security. Subsequent reliance by these states on international law to
support their actions despite this condemnation has led still others to denounce
international law as ‘a grab-bag of rules that national actors dip into when they
need a convenient norm to justify or add legitimacy to decisions already reached
on other grounds’.157 This has led some to pose that a more realistic response
would be to abandon international law altogether, and acknowledge a return to
the ‘might is right’ model derived from the Athenians at Melos where ‘the strong
do what they can and the weak suffer what they must’.
In response to these criticisms, this article makes two broader points. First, to
the extent that the international legal framework is outdated, international law has
shown itself to be adaptable to change in response to new threats. As with any
legal system, reform and development of the principles underlying the system are
crucial to avoid their relegation to the remnants of history. Preferably this will be
achieved by states coming together to achieve consensus by treaty. However,
states are not always rigorous in attending to their maintenance obligations. In
reality, the law is often amended by state practice in violation of the current
international legal framework. Violations of international law serve as a
precedent and have the capacity to reform the law, particularly where the violator
receives widespread support for its actions.158 A state’s failure to comply with
international law is therefore not something for which the body of international
law should be condemned. International law provides valuable objective
standards which can assist States to plot their reaction to extreme events by
157 Anthony D’Amato, ‘International Law as an Autopoietic System’, Draft paper presented at Max Planck
Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, Heidelberg, 15 November 2003, 2.
158 Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14, 109 [207].
426 UNSW Law Journal Volume 27(2)
reference to principles developed through the wisdom of experience, and which
aim to ensure states do not go beyond what is necessary and proportionate.
Where a state acts outside this legal framework, it does so in the knowledge that
the action forms a precedent that others may follow. Such a decision is one that
must be taken with the utmost caution and forethought, particularly by the most
influential states in the international community. The problem with acting outside
the law in the short-term is that you lose its protection in the long-term.
Secondly, international law is not always what a particular state, or group of
states, declares it to be. Declaration of a legal position by a state, even a powerful
state, does not serve to pressure-cook new principles of law which automatically
bind the international community. While treaties can be enacted more quickly,
customary international law can generally only be produced at a (frustratingly)
slow simmer. Formation of principles of customary international law requires
evidence of ‘extensive and virtually uniform state practice’.159 Practice that tends
toward the creation of a new principle will therefore be subject to the response of
other states and the scrutiny of the ‘invisible college of international lawyers’.160
In the end, it will be up to the international community to determine whether an
action on the part of states is a violation or renovation of international law.
The combined effect of these two observations leads to the imperative that
careful reflection should be given to the question whether the counter-terrorist
responses proposed by the Bush administration in the National Security Strategy
should be adopted as renovations to the international legal order. In doing so, we
need to ensure that the proposed renovations do not, in seeking to stamp out
terrorism, tilt the balance too far in another direction. It is necessary to approach
consideration of these principles with a global and long-term vision. If these
doctrines do become recognised as part of the international legal order, will they
become a destabilising force in the delicate ecosystem of the international
community? Even if it could be argued that they pose less of a threat when
wielded by an allied hegemon like the United States, can the international order
survive them being brandished by others in the international community, or a
subsequent superpower? Modern history has shown that economic superpowers,
seemingly invincible in their time, have a relatively short life-span. We are
already seeing predictions of China as the next economic superpower.
Of course, it is always difficult to forecast the effect of a new legal order on
future international stability. We might, however, question whether the Israeli
experience provides a microcosmic example. In response to increasing terrorist
threats against its civilian population, the Israeli government has resorted to a
number of forceful measures which violate international legal norms, including
forceful reprisals, targeted assassinations and torture. Some have argued that the
effect of this policy has been that the sporadic terrorist acts have developed into
159 North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of
Germany/Netherlands) [1969] ICJ Rep 1, 47.
160 Oscar Schachter, ‘The Invisible College of International Lawyers’ (1977–78) 72 Northwestern University
Law Review 218.
2004 Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the Use of Force 427
an unrelenting assault on Israeli civilians.161 If this is an accurate analysis, let us
hope that the Israeli experience does not anticipate a future scenario for the
global community. A report released by the US State Department in June 2004
announced that the number of significant international terrorism episodes
increased last year, and that the number of those injured in all international
terrorism episodes went up by more than 50 per cent.162
Terrorism poses a raft of challenges to the global order. International law does
not provide the perfect solution to these, but it is an important tool that can be
employed to useful effect in the fight against terrorism and other threats to
international stability. In determining our best response to global terrorism for the
future, we must recognise the need for a viable international framework and
prevent despoiling it in a way that will prevent us having access to it in the
future.
161 Tom Farer, ‘Beyond the Charter Frame: Unilateralism or Condominium?’ (2002) 96 American Journal of
International Law 359, 364.
162 Patterns of Global Terrorism 2003 (2004) United States

The Psychological Impact of Terrorism: An Epidemiologic Study of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Associated Factors in Victims of the 1995–1996 Bombings in France

2010-03-01T11:39:00.001+03:00

Objective: A wave of bombings struck

France in 1995 and 1996, killing 12 people
and injuring more than 200. The authors
conducted follow-up evaluations with the
victims in 1998 to determine the prevalence
of and factors associated with posttraumatic
stress disorder (PTSD).
Method: Victims directly exposed to the
bombings (N=228) were recruited into a
retrospective, cross-sectional study. Computer-
assisted telephone interviews were
conducted to evaluate PTSD, per DSM-IV
criteria, and to assess health status before
the attack, initial injury severity and
perceived threat at the time of attack, and
psychological symptoms, cosmetic impairment,
hearing problems, and health service
use at the time of the follow-up evaluation.
Factors associated with PTSD were
investigated with univariate logistic regression
followed by multiple logistic regression
analyses.
Results: A total of 196 respondents (86%)
participated in the study. Of these, 19%
had severe initial physical injuries (hospitalization
exceeding 1 week). Problems
reported at the follow-up evaluation included
attack-related hearing problems
(51%), cosmetic impairment (33%), and
PTSD (31%) (95% confidence interval=
24.5%–37.5%). Results of logistic regression
analyses indicated that the risk of PTSD
was significantly higher among women
(odds ratio=2.54), participants age 35–54
(odds ratio=2.83), and those who had
severe initial injuries (odds ratio=2.79) or
cosmetic impairment (odds ratio=2.74) or
who perceived substantial threat during
the attack (odds ratio=3.99).
Conclusions: The high prevalence of
PTSD 2.6 years on average after a terrorist
attack emphasizes the need for improved
health services to address the intermediate
and long-term consequences of terrorism.
(Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161:1384–1389)
Initially described in wartime combatants, posttraumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) is recognized as a common health
problem associated with exposure to traumatic events such
as natural catastrophes, motor vehicle accidents, assault,
rape, and robbery (1, 2). Research over the past 15 years has
also examined the psychological impact of terrorist acts
such as hostage-taking, bombings, and shootings, but
mainly in the short term (3–14). Estimates of the prevalence
of PTSD after terrorist attacks range from 7.5% to 50% in the
year after the event depending on the degree of victimization.
Despite the increase in terrorist attacks worldwide,
there is less evidence about the intermediate and long-term
psychological consequences of terrorism, in particular
PTSD, or about risk factors (5, 15–18). Studies of individuals
incurring physical injuries should also be considered in addressing
the long-term consequences of traumatic events.
Research on victims of motor vehicle accidents shows a
higher risk of PTSD, at rates that vary between 11% and
46%, 1–5 years postaccident (19, 20). While few studies have
evaluated the long-term prevalence of PTSD among burn
victims, it appears to fall between 22% and 45% after 1 year
and has been reported to be higher after discharge than
during hospitalization (21, 22).
Between July 25, 1995, and December 3, 1996, a wave of
bombings attributed to Islamist fundamentalist networks
hit France. Six struck Paris, and one struck the Lyon region;
most occurred in metro stations. Twelve people were
killed. Approximately 450 people applied for compensation
from the French Terrorism Victim Guarantee Fund, a
public guarantee fund to provide immediate financial aid
and indemnification for health consequences and longterm
sequelae. In 1998, we carried out a retrospective,
cross-sectional epidemiologic study of terrorist bombing
victims to evaluate the prevalence of and factors associated
with PTSD.
Method
Subjects
The target population was made up of victims who had been
directly exposed to the bombings. The French Terrorism Victim
Guarantee Fund required every person applying for compensation
to undergo an evaluation, carried out by independent experts,
to confirm exposure to the bombing and to assess its health
consequences. Participants were civilian, 18 years or older at the
time of the event, spoke French, and could be reached by telephone.
SOS Attentats, a nongovernmental organization created
in 1986 to represent French victims of terrorism, identified the
Am J Psychiatry 161:8, August 2004 1385
VERGER, DAB, LAMPING, ET AL.
http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org
sampling frame and contacted the subjects. Of 450 subjects who
applied for compensation, 222 (49.3%) chose not to undergo the
French Terrorism Victim Guarantee Fund evaluation. Thus, 228
subjects remained for whom direct exposure was confirmed and
who were contacted by SOS Attentats. In compliance with French
law, details about the target population, data collection protocol,
and procedures guaranteeing anonymity were reported to the
Commission for Computer Privacy.
Data Collection
SOS Attentats sent an information letter to eligible participants
10 days before the study began. This was followed by a telephone
invitation to participate in the study from a survey research institute.
After describing the study to subjects, oral consent was obtained.
Data were collected from September 16 to October 5,
1998, by computer-assisted telephone interviews conducted by
20 professional interviewers. The validity of using the telephone
to assess anxiety-related stress disorders has been demonstrated
in several studies (23, 24).
Measures
We defined PTSD at follow-up with a 22-item standardized instrument
based on DSM-IV criteria (25–27). The structure and details
of the instrument were very similar to the DSM-IV criteria—
we simply broke some criteria down into several items to make
them more understandable, as a back-translation confirmed. In a
different, unpublished study, the reliability (Cronbach’s alpha=
0.91), specificity (0.88), and sensitivity (0.73) of the instrument
were confirmed in a group of 15 subjects with PTSD and 33 subjects
with anxiety or depressive disorders; concurrent validity was
compared with the judgment of an external clinical expert with
substantial experience in the use of semistructured instruments
(G. Sydor, Faculty of Psychology, Catholic University of Louvain,
Belgium). Questions asked about symptoms associated with the
event (e.g., “Do you currently have, without wanting them, upsetting
memories about the attack?”), the duration of symptoms
(more or less than 1 month), and repercussions on social and
work life. Symptoms were rated on a 5-point intensity scale (0=
not at all; 4=very much). A score of at least 3 defined the presence
of a symptom.
Risk factors and health outcomes were also assessed by questionnaire.
An initial gravity score was used to classify injury severity
as mild (no hospitalization or surgery), moderate (initial hospitalization
of less than 1 week or delayed/deferred surgery), or
severe (initial hospitalization of more than 1 week). Perceived
threat was coded as present for subjects who answered “yes” to at
least one of two questions: Did you see people injured or killed
during the attack? Did you feel you were dying during the attack?
Hearing problems were assessed with four questions: Do you
have hearing problems related to the attack? Have you seen a specialist
in the past 4 weeks for a hearing problem related to the attack?
Have you had buzzing or ringing in one or both ears in the
past 4 weeks? Do you wear a hearing aid because of the attack?
Hearing problems were coded as severe for subjects who answered
yes to at least two questions and moderate for those who
answered yes to one question. Four questions from the Burn-Specific
Health Scale (28) were used to assess cosmetic impairment:
Did the attack change your appearance to the point of interfering
with your relationships? Would you like to forget that your appearance
has changed? Do you feel that members of your family
and friends are uncomfortable around you because of your appearance?
Do you have the impression that people would not
want to touch you? Questions were rated on a 5-point intensity
scale (1=very much or all the time; 5=not at all or never). Cosmetic
impairment was defined as a rating of 1, 2, or 3 in response
to at least one of the questions. Psychiatric history was assessed
with three questions. Two addressed the use of tranquilizers or
sleep-inducing drugs for at least 6 months at any time before the
attacks, and one addressed psychological problems: “Before the
attack, had you been followed by a general practitioner, psychiatrist,
psychologist or other psychotherapist for more than 6
months for a psychological problem?” A psychiatric history was
defined as present if at least one of the three questions was answered
positively.
Data Analysis
Factors associated with PTSD were investigated with univariate
logistic regression followed by multiple logistic regression analyses.
A forward/backward stepwise procedure was used to retain
explanatory variables in the models. At each step, a new variable
was entered in the model, which was then recomputed to test
whether this variable should remain in the model (and another be
withdrawn). This process continued until no variable in the equation
could be removed and no variables not already in the equation
could be added. The entry and exit thresholds for other variables
were p=0.15 and p=0.05, respectively; we used the Hosmer
and Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test and the c-index to evaluate
the fit of the resulting model. We used SAS (version 6.12) software
(SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.) for all statistical analyses.
Results
Of the 228 bombing victims who underwent medical
evaluation for the French Terrorism Victim Guarantee
Fund, 196 (86%) agreed to participate.
Respondent Characteristics
At the follow-up assessment, approximately three-quarters
of the respondents (74%) were younger than 50 years
old, were employed (76%), and were living with a partner
(70%) (Table 1). More than half were women and had completed
high school. The majority of respondents (83.7%)
were injured in one of the two Paris subway bombings.
TABLE 1. Sociodemographic Characteristics of the 1995–
1996 Terrorist Bombing Victims (N=196) at a 1998 Follow-
Up Assessment
Characteristic N %
Age (years)
<35 63 32.1
35–54 104 53.1
≥55 29 14.8
Sex
Female 105 53.6
Male 91 46.4
Employed
Yes 149 76.0
No 47 24.0
Occupation
Artisan, shopkeeper, small business head 3 1.5
Manager, professional intellectual occupation 34 17.3
Intermediate white-collar occupation, office worker 38 19.4
Employee 57 29.1
Worker 17 8.7
Marital status at follow-up
Single 35 17.9
Married, remarried, living together 138 70.4
Widowed 5 2.6
Divorced 18 9.2
Highest diploma completed
None 17 8.7
Certificate of primary studies (6 years) 15 7.7
Vocational degrees 59 30.1
High school diploma and higher 105 53.6
1386 Am J Psychiatry 161:8, August 2004
PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF TERRORISM IN FRANCE
http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org
The mean interval between the event and follow-up was
2.6 years (SD=0.6, range=1.8–3.2).
Prevalence of PTSD
PTSD at the follow-up assessment was identified in 61
respondents (31.1%) (Table 2). The prevalence of PTSD in
those with severe injuries was 50% (95% CI=34.1%–65.9%)
and was lower in participants with moderate or mild injuries
(27% [95% CI=17.5%–36.8%] and 26% [95% CI=16.2%–
35.8%], respectively). The most and least frequent symptoms
were reexperiencing the event (76%) and avoidance
of reminders of the event and numbness of feelings (33%),
respectively.
Risk Factors Associated With PTSD
Results of univariate analyses indicated that the risk of
PTSD was significantly higher for women; participants 35–
54 years of age; those who were not working; those who
lived alone; those whose marital situation had changed after
the attack (divorce, widowed); those who had severe injuries,
cosmetic impairment, or hearing problems; and
those who reported a high perceived threat at the time of
the attack or who had received treatment by a psychologist
since the attack (Table 3). A history of psychiatric disorders
was associated with a nonsignificant increase in the
prevalence of PTSD. The prevalence of PTSD was not associated
with the site of the attack or the number of years
since the attack. Multiple logistic regression analyses
showed a significant association between PTSD and age
(35–54 years), sex, marital status, injury severity, cosmetic
impairment, and perceived threat (Table 3). The odds ratios
associated with these variables in the multiple logistic
regression analysis did not substantially change from
those in the univariate analysis. The Hosmer and Lemeshow
goodness-of-fit test and the c-index show that the
model fit the data well.
Discussion
This study surveyed 196 terrorist bombing victims (86%
of eligible respondents), a relatively high number compared
with most other studies focusing on the intermediate-
and long-term psychological consequences of terrorist
attacks (15, 16, 18, 29). According to the French Terrorism
Victim Guarantee Fund, this group included almost all people
injured during the 1995–1996 bombings.
The overall prevalence of PTSD was high (31.1%) at a
mean of 2.6 years (SD=0.6) after the event. Comparisons
with other studies focusing on intermediate- and longterm
psychological consequences of terrorist attacks are
difficult because of differences between populations,
study methods, and measures (15, 16, 18, 29). However,
the prevalence of PTSD was higher than the 18.1% prevalence
rate in a study of victims of bombings between 1982
and 1987 in France (17). Most studies report that the prevalence
of PTSD after a traumatic event decreases over
time. Moreover, in a study of PTSD subjects 15 to 54 years
of age in the U.S. general population, the median time to
remission was 64 months in people who were not treated
and 36 months in those who received treatment (1). Onethird
of respondents did not have a single remission in the
10 years following the onset of PTSD.
Our findings show a significant relation between injury
severity and PTSD prevalence at a follow-up evaluation 2.6
years after the attacks. A relation between the nature and
severity of injuries (including burns) and PTSD is reported
only inconsistently. Some studies observe no such relation
(3, 22, 30–33)—these authors stress instead the prominent
role of subjective perception of stressors in mediating the
development of PTSD. Others state that the severity of
physical injury is one of the most reliable predictors of
PTSD (10, 17, 34–36). Two hypotheses have been proposed.
Solomon (34) hypothesized that more severe injuries
may be associated with a more traumatic initial reaction
that is also predictive of a PTSD that progresses more
rapidly and lasts longer. Others have suggested that results
may depend on the length of time elapsed since the accident,
with extent of injury becoming a more important
predictor over time (35); long-term disability due to severe
injury serves as a constant reminder of the trauma and
thereby tends to extend the duration of PTSD.
Our finding of an association between cosmetic impairment
and PTSD is similar to the findings in a study of Japanese
burn patients, which found that facial disfigurement
was associated with PTSD only among women (29).
This difference may be due to cultural differences or to the
methods used to assess physical sequelae (clinical examination
in the study by Fukunishi [29], self-report in ours).
Cosmetic impairment may constantly remind the victims
of the traumatic event, which may explain the poorer
long-term adjustment and greater distress than for other
respondents. Nonetheless, negative appraisal of cosmetic
impairment may also be associated with the presence of
depressive or PTSD symptoms that may increase patients’
focus on threats to their self-image (21). Our study design
did not allow us to confirm a causal relation between
PTSD and cosmetic impairment, but it raises a novel and
TABLE 2. Frequency of DSM-IV PTSD Criteria Among the
1995–1996 Terrorist Bombing Victims (N=196) at a 1998
Follow-Up Assessment
Criteriona N %
Reexperiencing the event 148 75.5
Avoidance of reminders of the event and numbness
of feelings 64 32.7
Hyperarousal 134 68.4
Duration of preceding symptoms 1 month or longer 179 91.3
Repercussions of the preceding symptoms on activities
of daily living 146 74.5
Meets criteria for PTSD 61 31.1b
a According to DSM-IV criteria, PTSD is present after exposure to a
traumatic event when each of the five criteria listed in the table
are present; each of the first three criteria is considered present
when the subcriteria reach a specified number.
b 95% CI=24.5–37.5.
Am J Psychiatry 161:8, August 2004 1387
VERGER, DAB, LAMPING, ET AL.
http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org
potentially quite important hypothesis regarding this risk
factor, which deserves further research.
We also found a higher prevalence of PTSD among respondents
with moderate and mild injuries (27.2% and
26.0%, respectively) compared with the general population
(1). This suggests that factors other than those associated
with physical trauma, such as perceived threat, may play a
role in the development of PTSD. The highest odds ratio
(3.99) was found between perceived threat and PTSD; this
result is supported by studies showing that factors such as
the threat of death or the viewing of mutilated bodies are
associated with the onset of PTSD (2, 37).
Our finding of a higher prevalence of PTSD in women is
supported by results from several studies (1, 38–41). There
is mixed support in the literature for our finding of an association
between age and PTSD (40, 42, 43), although several
studies have observed an increased risk of PTSD in 35–
54-year-olds during natural catastrophes (43–45). These
findings may be explained by the substantial economic
consequences experienced by respondents with PTSD in
this age group.
Failure of prior psychiatric history to be a strong predictor
of PTSD may be related to the proxy variables used,
which did not allow a thorough reconstruction of the nature
and severity of past psychiatric disorders. It might
also result from insufficient statistical power: relatively
few subjects reported a past history of psychiatric disorders
(11 subjects without and nine with PTSD).
TABLE 3. Factors Associated With PTSD Diagnosis in the 1995–1996 Terrorist Bombing Victims (N=196) at a 1998 Follow-
Up Assessment
Factor
No PTSD PTSD
Univariate Logistic
Regression
Multiple Logistic
Regressiona
N % N % Odds Ratio 95% CI Odds Ratio 95% CI
Sex
Men 70 76.9 21 23.1 1.00 1.00
Women 65 61.9 40 38.1 2.05* 1.09–3.83 2.54* 1.22–5.27
Age
<35 50 79.4 13 20.3 1.00 1.00
35–54 65 62.5 39 37.5 2.31* 1.11–4.78 2.83* 1.25–6.41
≥55 20 69.0 9 31.0 1.73 0.64–4.68 2.44 0.79–7.52
Employment
Yes 108 72.5 41 27.5 1.00
No 27 57.4 20 42.6 1.95* 0.98–3.85
Education
High 72 68.6 33 31.4 1.00
Low 63 69.2 28 30.8 1.03 0.56–1.89
Relationship status
With a partner 103 74.6 35 25.4 1.00 1.00
Alone 32 55.2 26 44.8 2.39* 1.26–4.55 2.29* 1.09–4.77
Change in marital status
No 126 70.8 52 29.2 1.00
Yes 8 47.1 9 52.9 2.72* 0.99–7.45
Native language
French 110 70.1 47 29.9 1.00
Other 25 64.1 14 35.9 1.31 0.63–2.74
Place of birth
France 96 70.6 40 29.4 1.00
Other 39 65.0 21 35.0 1.29 0.67–2.47
Injury severity (initial gravity score)
Low 57 74.0 20 26.0 1.00 1.00
Moderate 59 72.8 22 27.2 1.06 0.52–2.15 1.26 0.57–2.79
High 19 50.0 19 50.0 2.85* 1.26–6.44 2.79* 1.05–7.44
Cosmetic impairment
No 103 78.0 29 22.0 1.00 1.00
Yes 32 50.0 32 50.0 3.55* 1.87–6.74 2.74* 1.33–5.64
Hearing problems
No 37 80.4 9 19.6 1.00
Moderate 35 68.6 16 31.4 1.88 0.74–4.8
Severe 63 63.6 36 36.4 2.35* 1.02–5.42
Perceived threat
No 25 89.3 3 10.7 1.00 1.00
Yes 110 65.5 58 34.5 4.39* 1.27–15.17 3.99* 1.08–14.76
Psychological treatment since attack
No 61 79.2 16 20.8 1.00
Yes 74 62.2 45 37.8 2.32* 1.19–4.5
Psychiatric history
No 124 70.5 52 29.5 1.00
Yes 11 55.0 9 45.0 1.95 0.76–4.99
a Hosmer and Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test: 0.82; c-index: 0.79.
*p<0.05.
1388 Am J Psychiatry 161:8, August 2004
PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF TERRORISM IN FRANCE
http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org
The main limitation of this study is its retrospective design.
The psychological consequences of the terrorist
bombings were assessed through retrospective self-reports.
Respondents’ recollections of the attack and its sequelae
may have been influenced by their psychological
state at follow-up (37, 46). However, it is unlikely that respondents
overreported PTSD symptoms to seek financial
gain. Participants were aware that all information they
provided was confidential and would not be passed on to
the French Terrorism Victim Guarantee Fund. They had
already been recognized as victims and entered into the
indemnification process by the French Terrorism Victim
Guarantee Fund at the time of the study.
We have restricted our study to those who were directly
exposed to the bombings; because of the high response
rate, reconstruction of this group was substantially complete.
Victims who were not directly exposed were excluded.
It is very difficult to predict the consequence of
this exclusion on the estimate of PTSD prevalence, since
PTSD, perhaps less severe, may also occur in these subjects.
Because our comparisons involved subjects with
relatively similar experiences, the odds ratios associated
with injury severity, cosmetic impairment, and perceived
threat may be underestimated.
In conclusion, few studies have evaluated the long-term
prevalence of PTSD several years after terrorist attacks. We
surveyed a large sample of victims (N=196), evaluated psychological
outcomes a mean of 2.6 years after the 1995–
1996 attacks with rigorous measures, and found a high
prevalence of PTSD in injured victims. Our findings suggest
that psychological care for some victims may have been inadequate
in the 2–3-year period after the event and thus
highlights the need for improved health services to address
the intermediate and long-term physical, psychological,
and social consequences of terrorism. Risk factors associated
with PTSD that may help to identify those at highest
psychological risk include female gender, severe initial injuries,
and high perceived threat. Finally, results suggest the
role of cosmetic impairment in the persistence of PTSD.
Received Oct. 28, 2002; revision received Sept. 9, 2003; accepted
Nov. 20, 2003. From the Regional Health Observatory-INSERM U379,
Marseille, France; the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers,
Paris; the Health Services Research Unit, London School of Hygiene
and Tropical Medicine, London, U.K.; McGill University, Jewish General
Hospital, Montreal; Cemka-Eval, Bourg-la-Reine, France; and the
Albert Chenevier and Henri Mondor University Hospital Center,
Créteil—Paris XII Faculty of Medicine, Paris, France. Address reprint
requests to Dr. Verger, Observatoire Régional de la Santé Paca, 23 rue
Stanislas Torrents, 13006 Marseille, France.
This study received financial support from the Directorate General
of Health (a section of the Ministry of Health) and the Association
“Les Gueules Cassées.”
The authors thank the members of the scientific committee of the
study; SOFRES Medical for undertaking the interviews; Anne Duburcq
from EVAL for data analysis; Stéphane Hautecouverture, France Lert,
and Anne Lowell for comments on draft versions of the manuscript;
and Jo Ann Cahn for the translation.
References
1. Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M, Nelson CB: Posttraumatic
stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995; 52:1048–1060
2. Yehuda R: Post-traumatic stress disorder. N Engl J Med 2002;
346:108–114
3. Curran PS, Bell P, Murray A, Loughrey G, Roddy R, Rocke LG:
Psychological consequences of the Enniskillen bombing. Br J
Psychiatry 1990; 156:479–482
4. Loughrey GC, Bell P, Kee M, Roddy RJ, Curran PS: Post-traumatic
stress disorder and civil violence in Northern Ireland. Br J Psychiatry
1988; 153:554–560
5. Shalev AY: Posttraumatic stress disorder among injured survivors
of a terrorist attack: predictive value of early intrusion and
avoidance symptoms. J Nerv Ment Dis 1992; 180:505–509
6. North CS, Smith EM, Spitznagel EL: Posttraumatic stress disorder
in survivors of a mass shooting. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151:
82–88
7. Somasundaram DJ: Post-traumatic responses to aerial bombing.
Soc Sci Med 1996; 42:1465–1471
8. Trappler B, Friedman S: Posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors
of the Brooklyn Bridge shooting. Am J Psychiatry 1996;
153:705–707
9. Amir M, Weil G, Kaplan Z, Tocker T, Witztum E: Debriefing with
brief group psychotherapy in a homogenous group of non-injured
victims of a terrorist attack: a prospective study. Acta Psychiatr
Scand 1998; 98:237–242
10. North CS, Nixon SJ, Shariat S, Mallonee S, McMillen JC, Spitznagel
EL, Smith EM: Psychiatric disorders among survivors of the
Oklahoma City bombing. JAMA 1999; 282:755–762
11. Galea S, Ahern J, Resnick H, Kilpatrick D, Bucuvalas M, Gold J,
Vlahov D: Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist
attacks in New York City. N Engl J Med 2002; 346:982–987
12. Smith DW, Christiansen EH, Vincent R, Hann NE: Population effects
of the bombing of Oklahoma City. J Okla State Med Assoc
1999; 92:193–198
13. Schuster MA, Stein BD, Jaycox LH, Collins RL, Marshall GN, Elliott
MN, Zhou AJ, Kanouse DE, Morrison JL, Berry SH: A national
survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001,
terrorist attacks. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:1507–1512
14. Schlenger WE, Caddell JM, Ebert L, Jordan BK, Rourke KM, Wilson
D, Thalji L, Dennis JM, Fairbank JA, Kulka RA: Psychological
reactions to terrorist attacks: findings from the national study
of Americans’ reactions to September 11. JAMA 2002; 288:
581–588
15. Jehel L, Duchet C, Paterniti S, Consoli S, Guelfi J: Etude prospective
de l’état de stress post-traumatique parmi les victimes
d’un attentat terroriste. Encephale 2001; 27:393–400
16. Bouthillon-Heitzmann P, Crocq L, Julien H: Stress immédiat et
séquelles psychiques chez les victimes d’attentats terroristes.
Psychol Med (Paris) 1992; 24:465–470
17. Abenhaim L, Dab W, Salmi LR: Study of civilian victims of terrorist
attacks (France 1982–1987). J Clin Epidemiol 1992; 45:
103–109
18. Desivilya HS, Gal R, Ayalon O: Extent of victimization, traumatic
stress symptoms, and adjustment of terrorist assault survivors:
a long-term follow-up. J Trauma Stress 1996; 9:881–889
19. Blaszczynski A, Gordon K, Silove D, Sloane D, Hillman K, Panasetis
P: Psychiatric morbidity following motor vehicle accidents:
a review of methodological issues. Compr Psychiatry
1998; 39:111–121
20. Mayou R, Tyndel S, Bryant B: Long-term outcome of motor vehicle
accident injury. Psychosom Med 1997; 59:578–584
21. Bryant RA: Predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder following
burns injury. Burns 1996; 22:89–92
Am J Psychiatry 161:8, August 2004 1389
VERGER, DAB, LAMPING, ET AL

TERRORISM TODAY

2010-02-09T14:30:00.001+03:00

The Elusive Definition of Terrorism
Rebels, insurgents, separatists, guerrillas, insurrectionists, freedom fighters, fundamentalists... are these all terrorists? Or does terrorism claim its own exclusive niche?
The exasperating inability to define terrorism is betrayed in the vague terms of the UN’s Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy approved in 2006. It resolved to "strongly condemn terrorism in all its forms and manifestations, committed by whomever, wherever and for whatever purposes."

The UN has been striving for decades to find a wording which narrows down "all its forms and manifestations" into specific circumstances which can be labelled as terror. Civilian populations deserve something better than routine condemnations for the climate of fear of indiscriminate death and injury that they suffer.

The absence of an agreed definition matters for many other reasons. It blocks the possibility of referring terrorist acts to an international court, as for genocide and war crimes. It leaves individual countries free to outlaw activity which they choose to classify as terrorism, perhaps for their own political convenience. And crucially it enabled the US administration of former president Bush to conjure in the public mind parallels between the 9/11 destruction of the World Trade Center and the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein.
The vocabulary of terrorism has therefore become the successor to that of anarchy and communism as the catch-all label of opprobrium, exploited accordingly by media and politicians.

The Just Cause Conundrum

Mandela's cell on Robben Island © Peter Armstrong

A definition which eliminates any just cause for terrorism has to navigate a minefield of precedent. History provides too many examples of organisations and individuals who evolved from hunted terrorists into respected government. This has applied particularly to national liberation movements fighting colonial or oppressive regimes, engaging in violence within their own countries often as a last resort.

Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya spent years of his life in peaceful independence advocacy with the British government before his involvement with the Mau Mau rebellion. Another convicted "terrorist", Nelson Mandela, wrote in his autobiography: "the hard facts were that 50 years of non-violence had brought (my) people nothing but more repressive legislation, and fewer rights". Countries from Africa and the Middle East have therefore been reluctant to endorse any definition of terrorism which fails to place such acts within the broad sweep of history.

The dilemma for the international community lies firstly in assessing whether a cause is "just" and therefore capable of remedy by political negotiation, and secondly in identifying which "terrorist" organisations are capable of emerging into the legitimate political process.

For example, a central aim of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) - to reunite the northern and southern counties of Ireland - was never regarded as a just cause by the UK government. Other grievances linked to fair government in the north were accepted as negotiable and, Sinn Fein, the political wing of the IRA, is now part of an elected power-sharing government in Northern Ireland.

Jerusalem's disputed Old City © Out There News

In the Middle East, the vision of an independent Palestinian state is considered a just cause by world leaders. But negotiations have so far excluded representatives of Hamas which is proscribed as a terrorist organisation. As with Hezbollah in Lebanon, the political wing of Hamas can demonstrate a degree of popular electoral support which suggests that the group may be part of a long term solution.

These extreme sensitivities in the dividing line between political recognition and exclusion are found in other longstanding internal conflicts around the world. Despite a decade of outrages committed by the Communist Party of Nepal, Maoist (CPN- Maoist), it now holds the largest number of seats in a democratically elected parliament.

By contrast, long years of internal violence in Sri Lanka concluded in 2009 with the obliteration of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). The political fate of the Tamil minority remains uncertain. Potential negotiation dilemmas may also flare up with separatist groups in Mindanao in the Philippines, the Kurdish regions of Turkey and Iraq, and the “Maoist corridor” across central and eastern India.

Global Jihad

Over the last decade these examples of potentially negotiable causes within the nation state have been accompanied by more sinister grievances against the world order. Simultaneous bomb attacks on the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998 followed by the 9/11 tragedy in 2001 heralded this globalisation of terror.

Both attacks in Africa were traced to the group headed by Osama bin Laden known as al-Qaeda. Its ideology is shaped by the belief that Islam is being degraded and humiliated by "western" values, with particular disgust reserved for those Arab countries, such as Saudi Arabia and Egypt, which are close allies of the US.

The plight of the Palestinians is a rallying call for al-Qaeda whose central goal is to expel Americans from Muslim lands and dismantle pro-US Middle Eastern governments, especially Israel. To this end all US citizens and their sympathisers are to be killed, regardless of whether or not they are Muslim.
Afghanistan's former Taliban ruler Mullah Omar

This extreme global jihad (armed struggle) of fundamentalist Sunni Islam adopted by bin Laden and his closest associates is believed to have been inspired by an Egyptian radical, Sayyid Qutb, who opposed the Nasser regime. Fighting alongside the conservative Taliban in Afghanistan may have been a further influence on bin Laden.

The epicentre of global jihadism may be migrating from the Middle East to South Asia. As well as the success of the Taliban insurgency, a sequence of spectacular terrorist atrocities threaten to destabilise Pakistan and India. The 2008 attack on Mumbai, which paralysed the city for almost three days, has been traced to the Pakistan-based Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), a Sunni group long engaged with the goal of expelling “Hindu” India from Muslim Kashmir.

The Jihadis

The nihilistic ideology of al-Qaeda and its imitators has no conceivable association with a just cause; nor can it claim any roots in Islam which shares core values of peace and tolerance with the world's major religions. The Koran teaches that the killing of innocent humans is a crime and that suicide is unacceptable.

It is therefore far from self-evident how these terrorist groups find a ready supply of followers, the jihadis. The tactic of suicide bombing, believed to have been pioneered by the Tamil Tigers, has been central to al-Qaeda missions and is now adopted by the Taliban. This nightmare form of attack has prompted frantic efforts to understand the psychological motives of individuals who are prepared to strap dynamite around themselves and trigger the detonator whilst surrounded by defenceless citizens.

Attention is focused on the influence of Islamic education. Charismatic leaders in a small minority of institutions have been able to advocate extreme views which "radicalise" students into beliefs which are inconsistent with mainstream Islam. This is believed to flourish especially in Pakistan where inadequate funding of state education has allowed unregulated madrasa religious education to take hold. Under pressure from foreign donors, the madrasas are increasingly subject to government closure or reform.

In Indonesia a number of terrorists belonging to the Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) group have been identified as alumni of religious schools there known as pesantrens. In the UK attendance at the radical Finsbury mosque has been traced to a disturbing proportion of known terrorists.

Attempts have been made to construct psychological profiles with proven susceptibility to indoctrination. In Islamic countries such interest focuses on the sense of political impotence created by inadequate democracy and corrupt governance. In Europe, there are suggestions that young Muslims from immigrant families suffer identity problems in reconciling differences between western lifestyles and their upbringing.

Counter-Terrorism

Counter-terrorism is a massive global industry which takes place at various levels, ranging from local police investigation of terrorist acts to the invasion of Afghanistan to oust the Taliban and hunt down al-Qaeda leaders.

Over the last 20-30 years the UN has approved 13 Conventions which attempt to eliminate terrorist activity, culminating in 2006 in a broad Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy. Although the Strategy addresses all the key components of counter-terrorism, the "unique consensus achieved by world leaders" extended only limited powers to the UN.

In the absence of a comprehensive UN treaty, national criminal laws and bilateral arrangements remain the basic tools of counter-terrorism. Led by the US Patriot Act, such laws have been inclined to encroach on freedom of speech and association, to introduce prolonged detention without trial and intrude on standards of privacy.

Human rights campaigners point out that erosion of established rights is potentially self-defeating. The UN Global Strategy declares that countries which are "conducive to the spread of terrorism" are those characterised by "violations of human rights, ethnic, national and religious discrimination, political exclusion, socio-economic marginalization, and lack of good governance.” Many counter-terrorism laws open paths that lead to these shortcomings.

A mask to shield from bio-terrorist attacks?

National border control is fraught and trying for all concerned - over one million names feature on the US Terror Watch list. This FBI compilation lost all credibility during 2008 with the discovery that it contained the names of Nelson Mandela and his ANC colleagues. Western countries also publish lists of proscribed terrorist groups which link to laws prohibiting membership and movement of funds.

Fear of nuclear or biological attack inevitably dominates counter-terrorist thinking. It accounts for concerns over potential development of advanced technology by "rogue states" such as North Korea and Iran. Efforts to prevent the theft of fissile material have been slow to get off the ground and the use of a “dirty” nuclear device remains a real threat.

War on Terror

Failure of the conventional tools of counter-terrorism to prevent the destruction of the World Trade Center led to the introduction of rhetoric as an additional weapon. Former president George W. Bush packaged his response as the “war on terror", invoking visions of a crusade.

In choosing the language of a clash between Christian and Muslim civilisations, the Americans reinforced rather than undermined al-Qaeda ideology, uniting rather than exploiting the deep divisions within Islam. It is no wonder that European leaders were horrified. References to a crusade were swiftly abandoned but it was not until the latter part of 2006 that the US moderated its warrior imagery of counter-terrorism.

The US decision to invade Iraq without UN endorsement fulfilled al-Qaeda accusations of western interference in Muslim territories. The country’s reputation then plummeted further with revelations that provisions of the Geneva Convention for the treatment of prisoners of war were being flouted through torture and illegal detention. The names of camps at Bagram in Afghanistan, Abu Ghraib in Iraq and Guantánamo Bay in Cuba have come to symbolise the loss of moral authority of the former unipolar world.

The Moral Vacuum

The debacle of the war on terror presented unimaginable gifts to the terrorist cause. Whilst considerable damage was inflicted on the al-Qaeda leadership, the ideology proved capable of cloning itself in countless small local cells of potential terrorists. Countries such as the UK and US remain in a constant state of alert to uncover plots of indiscriminate criminal activity.

The moral vacuum has had much wider consequences. Governments around the world have been emboldened to act with impunity against political opponents, ethnic minorities and separatist movements, in the name of counter-terrorism or national security.

From Tibet to Tehran, Colombia to Chechnya, the state monopoly over legitimate violence has been exercised to instil fear into populations, replicating the goal of terror. In this way, the influence of 21st century terrorism has been felt far beyond the geographical horizons of its perpetrators.

The Price of Fear

Under mounting pressure from human rights campaigners and from his own Special Rapporteurs, the UN Secretary-General presented a report to the General Assembly in 2008 titled “The protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism.” The document amounts to a sharp reminder to world leaders that decades of hard-won individual freedoms should not be thrown away by overbearing self-preservation.

Global terrorism sucks out finance as well as freedoms in its slipstream, threatening to undo a generation of multilateral endeavour for human development. Foreign aid budgets are struggling in the wake of security priorities.

Whilst there have been no major terrorist incidents in the US since 2001, the homeland security budget for 2009 is $44 billion, a figure comparable to the shortfall in annual funding required to meet the Millennium Development Goals. Such distorted spending priorities reflect the imperative of calming a country’s collective fear, the soft underbelly of emotion that terrorists are most adept at exposing.

US President Barack Obama

A window of opportunity may exist for a new approach. On his first day in office in 2009, President Obama announced his intention to close the Guantánamo Bay facility. He began his historic speech at Cairo University with a greeting of peace, spoken in Arabic, before rejecting the language and values of his predecessor.

There are signs that the blunt instruments of counter-terrorism may give way to more cerebral approaches, exposing the al-Qaeda ideology for its medieval undertones and deep anti-Semitism. In Indonesia, success against JI has been attributed in part to the advocacy work of converted terrorists to “deradicalise” their former colleagues in prisons. A UK government programme, Preventing Violent Extremism, is dedicated to “winning hearts and minds” in a civic environment.

What does humanitarian law say about terrorism? Extract from ICRC publication "International humanitarian law: answers to your questions"

2010-01-08T14:23:00.000+03:00

-01-2004

Terrorist acts may occur during armed conflicts or in time of peace. As international humanitarian law applies only in situations of armed conflict, it does not regulate terrorist acts committed in peacetime.

The requirement to distinguish between civilians and combatants, and the prohibition of attacks on civilians or indiscriminate attacks, lies at the heart of humanitarian law. In addition to an express prohibition of all acts aimed at spreading terror among the civilian population (Art. 51, para. 2, Protocol I; and Art. 13, para. 2, Protocol II), IHL also proscribes the following acts, which could be considered as terrorist attacks:

attacks on civilians and civilian objects (Arts. 51, para. 2, and 52, Protocol I; and Art. 13, Protocol II);
indiscriminate attacks (Art. 51, para. 4, Protocol I);
attacks on places of worship (Art. 53, Protocol I; and Art. 16, Protocol II);
attacks on works and installations containing dangerous forces (Art. 56, Protocol I; and Art. 15, Protocol II);
the taking of hostages (Art. 75, Protocol I; Art. 3 common to the four Conventions; and Art. 4, para. 2b, Protocol II);
murder of persons not or no longer taking part in hostilities (Art. 75, Protocol I; Art. 3 common to the four Conventions; and Art. 4, para. 2a, Protocol II).

Apart from prohibiting the above acts, humanitarian law contains stipulations to repress violations of these prohibitions and mechanisms for implementing these obligations, which are much more developed than any obligation that currently exists under international conventions for the prevention and punishment of terrorism.

The Science of Terrorism

2009-12-16T11:14:00.002+03:00

The Biology of Anthrax

Anthrax is a serious disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Bacteria are single-cell microorganisms known as prokaryotes because they lack a nucleus housing the DNA. Instead, the DNA floats in a region of the cytoplasm of the cell called the nucleoid.

The DNA macromolecules contain the genetic information that a cell needs to perform its various functions. The cytoplasm is a gel-like, water-based medium permitting the flow of materials within the cell. Located in the cytoplasm are plasmids, or small loops of DNA, which may be exchanged with other bacteria in what amounts to microbial sex. A combination of protein and RNA, the ribosomes synthesize proteins by translating the information in messenger RNA into protein sequences. Separating the cell contents from its environment is the cell wall. Just inside the cell wall is the cytoplasmic membrane, which is selectively permeable allowing some material to flow in and out of the cell. Having no flagellum, Bacillus anthracis is not motile. A flagellum is a flexible, spiral-shaped structure that generates motion by rotating like a corkscrew or propeller. Pili, the external hair-like projections indicated in the Figure, allow a bacterium to interact with its surroundings.
Although many people are fearful of bacteria believing that they are a source of disease, bacterial are essential to the health of Earth's ecosystem. They are responsible for the breakdown of organic substances: Soil quality, for example, depends crucially on their existence. Bacteria have a symbiotic relation with animals, living in their stomachs and intestines and using enzymes to break food into useful smaller components. It is doubtful that humans could exist in the absence of bacteria. Indeed, there are more bacterial cells than human cells in the human body: About one-hundred-trillion (10¹⁴) bacteria are present in each of us! Only about 10% of bacteria are pathogenic, producing disease through the release of toxins. There is fossil evidence that bacteria have been present on Earth for more than 3.5 billion years.

Efficient deployment of anthrax
could cause more deaths
than from a nuclear bomb explosion.

     Bacteria come in different shapes of which the most common are spherical (cocci), rod-shaped (bacilli), spiral (spirilla) or comma-like (vibrios) forms. They may live in isolation but most (estimated to be 99%) live in clusters or colonies. For example, chains of spherical bacteria have the generic name streptococci – they resemble bead-lets and certain strains cause sore throats. As its name implies, Bacillus anthracis is rod-shaped. Individual bacterium cells are usually a few microns (10^-6 meters) in size. Anthrax spores and bacteria are of this dimension.
     Bacteria thrive in warm, moist environments. Once a bacterium has been cultured to increase immensely their number by introducing such favorable conditions, tests and identification can commence. Bacillus anthracis is anaerobic meaning that it does not need oxygen to grow and multiply. Many bacteria can live only in the presence of oxygen – they are aerobic. It is possible to distinguish bacteria by visual examination with a microscope.
     The French chemist Louis Pasteur (1833-1895) determined that bacteria are the cause and not the result of illness. The German physician Robert Koch (1843-1910) discovered a large number of bacteria including Bacillus anthracis and established procedures for isolating and identifying them. Scientists have only classified a few percent of the Earth's bacteria. They divide them into two broad classes: Gram positive and Gram negative react differently to a certain dye, reflecting a different absorptive property of the cell wall. This test was developed by the Danish bacteriologist Hans Gram. Bacillus anthracis is Gram positive.
     Bacteria reproduce by having one cell divided into two. Under ideal conditions, this happens roughly every 20 minutes, so that in six hours one bacterium can become 2¹⁸ = 262144 bacteria (more than a quarter of a million individuals). Without an immune system, an infected person would soon be overwhelmed by a multitude of bacteria. The rapid rate of growth is one of the reasons why microbes are potentially medically dangerous.
     Pathogenic bacteria may enter the human body through the lungs if inhaled, through the skin by contact, through the digestive tract if eaten and through the genitourinary system during sex. Anthrax does so by the first three methods: Inhalational anthrax is quite serious and often fatal with an initial flu-like reaction followed by high fever, restricted breathing and shock; cutaneous anthrax is most common, quite treatable and manifests as a raised, itchy bump on the skin that eventually becomes black; intestinal anthrax is rare but life-threatening and initially causes diarrhea, vomiting and fever. Inhalational anthrax is an occupational hazard of slaughterhouse and textile workers and, for this reason, it is also called woolsorter's disease.
     Anthrax mostly affects livestock. In the 17th century, about 60,000 cattle died in Europe in what is known as the Black Bane. People become inflected by inhaling spores released by an animal that has died from anthrax or by handling the meat, wool, hide or waste from such a diseased animal, or through human generated means: acts of bio-terrorism, biological warfare or accidents.
     In 1979 in Sverdlovsk, 66 Soviet citizens died from an accidental release of anthrax from a Russian biological weapons plant. It is believed that the biblical account of the fifth plague of Egypt was anthrax generated. Sizeable outbreaks in human populations are rare but, between October 1979 and March 1980, more than 6,000 people contracted anthrax in Zimbabwe. Most cases were cutaneous.
     When livestock die of anthrax, carcasses should be burned, not buried. Nearby animals and people should then be vaccinated.
     Evolution has devised a rather vicious survival mechanism for Bacillus anthracis: Anthrax spores rest dormant in the soil for years, waiting for a grazing animal to ingest, inhale or absorb them. If the animal is unlucky, an immune-defense white blood cell engulfs a spore, and before it transports it to a lymph node, the spore germinates into an active Bacillus anthracis, which then divides and reproduces. These few anthrax bacteria slice through the cell wall thereby entering the blood stream. Once in the blood, they multiply and release toxins that cause immune-defense macrophage cells to release excessive amounts of inflammatory hormones. The toxins are also able to defeat the animal's immune system. Massive inflammation causes widespread hemorrhage, and organs fail. Death follows usually within 36 hours. The anthrax bacteria then feed on the organic material of the dead animal and multiply to incredible numbers: more than a million anthrax cells per milliliter of blood. When the food source is exhausted, the bacteria turn back into environmentally resistant spores, which lay dormant and wait for the next victim.

In just a few hours on September 11
as many people died as 1/10th of the American solders
in Vietnam over a ten-year period!

Bacterial inflections are treated with antibiotics. Some, like penicillin, kill bacteria by breaking sections of a bacterium's cell wall. Water usually then enters the cell causing it to burst. Other antibiotics, such as tetracycline, halt bacterial growth, allowing the body's immune system eventually to dispense with the disease. Finally, antibiotics such as streptomycin prevent the production of proteins needed for a bacterium's survival. If detected sufficiently early, an anthrax infection can be defeated with antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin and penicillin. Anthrax is not contagious.
Bacteria are very adaptable and new strains can develop that are resistant to specific antibiotics. Weapon-grade anthrax is achieved by genetically manipulating it to be antibiotic resistant. In such a form, it is particularly lethal. Quantities are easily generated using cultures. Dried spores can be stored for long periods in weapon containers and are readily released as an aerosol spray. Efficient deployment of anthrax could cause more deaths than from a nuclear bomb explosion.

The Physics of the 2001 World Trade Center Terrorism

The terrorist attack of September 11, 2001 produced enormous destruction and killed thousands of people. To put the loss of life in perspective, in just a few hours on September 11 as many people died as 1/10th of the American solders in Vietnam over a ten-year period!
The World Trade Towers initially withstood the impact of the Boeing 767 jets, which they were designed to do, but the subsequent fire generated by burning jet fuel melted steel eventually causing an implosion in which upper level floors fell upon lower level floors to create a complete collapse, like a toppling row of dominoes. Here is some physics of the catastrophe.
A jet typically travels at around 500 miles per hour, which is equivalent to about 225 meter per second (=500 miles x 1600 kilometer per mile / (60 minutes per hour x 60 seconds per minute)). The weight of a Boeing 767 is about 400,000 pounds, which is roughly 180,000 kilograms (= 400,000 pounds x 0.45 kilograms per pound). The kinetic energy KE of a moving object is determined from the formula

KE = 1/2 mv²
Using, m = 180,000 kilograms and v = 225 meters/second, one finds that a jet's kinetic energy is about 4.5 billion Joules (a Joule is a unit of energy often used in physics). Since almost all this energy was deposited into a tower at impact, the equivalent of a little more than a ton of TNT was released in the crash (one ton of TNT is equivalent to about 4 billion Joules).

In effect, the terrorists
dropped a mini atomic bomb on New York.

     The ensuing fire raged havoc on the structural supports of the tower. Each jet could carry a maximum of approximately 24,000 gallons of fuel, and for a transcontinental flight each tank would be about 2/3 full. Thus there was about 16,000 gallon of fuel aboard, whose energy content is approximately 130,000 BTUs per gallon ("BTU" stands for British Thermal Unit, a unit of thermal energy for which one BTU is a little more than 1000 Joules). The net result is that about two trillion Joules were released in each fire, the equivalent of about 525 tons of TNT. About 10% of the fuel exploded at impact, so that the initial explosion was equivalent to releasing about 50 tons of TNT.
     The building's demise was the final collapse. In a fraction of a minute, the entire structure came tumbling down. The gravitational potential energy originally stored in the standing skyscraper was converted into microscopic kinetic energy in the form of heat and sound, into the macroscopic kinetic energy of flying debris and into the potential energy resulting from the deformation of building parts (twisted steel, distorted beams, crushed furniture and building parts, etc.). The formula for the potential energy PE of a uniform standing object is

PE = mgh
where h is half the height of the object, m is its mass and g = 9.8 meter/sec². Each tower weighed about 600,000 tons, which is roughly 550 million kilogram (= 600,000 tons x 2000 pounds per ton x 0.45 kilograms per pound). Since the height of a World Trade Tower skyscraper was just over 400 meters, h is about 200 meters. One finds that the energy released in each implosion was about a trillion Joules, which is equivalent to exploding about 250 tons of TNT.
     Summarizing,

Event	Energy Released	Image
Jet crash Initial fuel explosion	1 ton of TNT 50 tons of TNT
Fire	475 tons of TNT
Collapse	250 tons of TNT

The destruction in each tower was equivalent to about 775 tons of TNT. Thus, the September 11 terrorist act was equivalent to exploding about 1550 tons of TNT, which is approximately 1/13th the destructive power of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima in 1945 (it was a 20 kiloton TNT-equivalent nuclear weapon). In effect, the terrorists dropped a mini atomic bomb on New York.

Definations for Terrorism

2009-11-30T09:47:00.000+03:00

There is clearly a wide choice of definitions for terrorism. Despite this, there are elements in common among the majority of useful definitions. Common threads of the various definitions identify terrorism as:

• Political
• Psychological
• Coercive
• Dynamic
• Deliberate

Political
A terrorist act is a political act or is committed with the intention to cause a political effect. Clausewitz' statement that "war is a continuation of policy by other means" is taken as a truism by terrorists. They merely eliminate the intermediate step of armies and warfare, and apply violence directly to the political contest.

Psychological
The intended results of terrorist acts cause a psychological effect ("terror"). They are aimed at a target audience other than the actual victims of the act. The intended target audience of the terrorist act may be the population as a whole, some specific portion of a society (an ethnic minority, for example), or decision-making elites in the society's political, social, or military populace.

Coercive
Violence and destruction are used in the commission of the act to produce the desired effect. Even if casualties or destruction are not the result of a terrorist operation, the threat or potential of violence is what produces the intended effect. For example, a successful hostage taking operation may result in all hostages being freed unharmed after negotiations and bargaining. Regardless of the outcome, the terrorist bargaining chips were nothing less than the raw threat of applying violence to maim or kill some or all of the hostages. When the threat of violence is not credible, or the terrorists are unable to implement violence effectively, terrorism fails.

Dynamic
Terrorist groups demand change, revolution, or political movement. The radical worldview that justifies terrorism mandates drastic action to destroy or alter the status quo. Even if the goals of a movement are reactionary in nature, they require action to "turn back the clock" or restore some cherished value system that is extinct. Nobody commits violent attacks on strangers or innocents to keep things "just the way they are."

Deliberate
Terrorism is an activity planned and intended to achieve particular goals. It is a rationally employed, specifically selected tactic, and is not a random act. Since the victims of terrorist violence are often of little import, with one being as good for the terrorists' purposes as another, victim or target selection can appear random or unprovoked. But the target will contain symbolic value or be capable of eliciting emotional response according to the terrorists' goals. Remember that the actual target of terrorism is not the victim of the violence, but the psychological balance

Media Exploitation
Terrorism's effects are not necessarily aimed at the victims of terrorist violence. Victims are usually objects to be exploited by the terrorists for their effect on a third party. In order to produce this effect, information of the attack must reach the target audience. So any terrorist organization plans for exploitation of available media to get the message to the right audiences. Victims are simply the first medium that transmits the psychological impact to the larger target audience. The next step in transmission will depend on what media is available, but it will be planned, and it will frequently be the responsibility of a specific organization within the terrorist group to do nothing else but exploit and control the news cycle.

Some organizations can rely on friendly or sympathetic news outlets, but this is not necessary. News media can be manipulated by planning around the demands of the "news cycle", and the advantage that control of the initiative gives the terrorist. Pressures to report quickly, to "scoop" competitors, allow terrorists to present claims or make statements that might be refuted or critically commented on if time were available. Terrorists often provide names and details of individual victims to control the news media through its desire to humanize or personalize a story. For the victims of a terrorist attack, it is a certainty that the impact on the survivors (if there are any) is of minimal importance to the terrorists. What is important is the intended psychological impact that the news of their death or suffering will cause in a wider audience.

Operations in Permissive Societies
Terrorists conduct more operations in societies where individual rights and civil legal protections prevail. While terrorists may base themselves in repressive regimes that are sympathetic to them, they usually avoid repressive governments when conducting operations wherever possible. An exception to this case is a repressive regime that does not have the means to enforce security measures. Governments with effective security forces and few guaranteed civil liberties have typically suffered much less from terrorism than liberal states with excellent security forces. Al Qaeda has shown, however, that they will conduct operations anywhere.

Illegality of Methods
Terrorism is a criminal act. Whether the terrorist chooses to identify himself with military terminology (as discussed under insurgencies below), or with civilian imagery ("brotherhood", "committee", etc.), he is a criminal in both spheres. The violations of civil criminal laws are self-evident in activities such as murder, arson, and kidnapping regardless of the legitimacy of the government enforcing the laws. Victimizing the innocent is criminal injustice under a dictatorship or a democracy. If the terrorist claims that he is justified in using such violence as a military combatant, he is a de facto war criminal under international law and the military justice systems of most nations.

Preparation and Support
It's important to understand that actual terrorist operations are the result of extensive preparation and support operations. Media reporting and academic study have mainly focused on the terrorists' goals and actions, which is precisely what the terrorist intends. This neglects the vital but less exciting topic of preparation and support operations. Significant effort and coordination is required to finance group operations, procure or manufacture weapons, conduct target surveillance and analysis, and deliver trained terrorists to the operational area. While the time and effort expended by the terrorists may be a drop in the bucket compared to the amounts spent to defend against them, terrorist operations can still involve large amounts of money and groups of people. The need for dedicated support activities and resources on simple operations are significant, and get larger the greater the sophistication of the plan and the complexity of the target.

2009-11-26T09:29:00.000+03:00

Terror in Antiquity: 1st -14th Century AD

2009-11-26T09:15:00.000+03:00

The earliest known organization that exhibited aspects of a modern terrorist organization was the Zealots of Judea. Known to the Romans as sicarii, or dagger-men , they carried on an underground campaign of assassination of Roman occupation forces, as well as any Jews they felt had collaborated with the Romans. Their motive was an uncompromising belief that they could not remain faithful to the dictates of Judaism while living as Roman subjects. Eventually, the Zealot revolt became open, and they were finally besieged and committed mass suicide at the fortification of Masada.
The Assassins were the next group to show recognizable characteristics of terrorism, as we know it today. A breakaway faction of Shia Islam called the Nizari Ismalis adopted the tactic of assassination of enemy leaders because the cult's limited manpower prevented open combat. Their leader, Hassam-I Sabbah, based the cult in the mountains of Northern Iran. Their tactic of sending a lone assassin to successfully kill a key enemy leader at the certain sacrifice of his own life (the killers waited next to their victims to be killed or captured) inspired fearful awe in their enemies.
Even though both the Zealots and the Assassins operated in antiquity, they are relevant today: First as forerunners of modern terrorists in aspects of motivation, organization, targeting, and goals. Secondly, although both were ultimate failures, the fact that they are remembered hundreds of years later, demonstrates the deep psychological impact they caused.
Early Origins of Terrorism: 14th -18th Century

From the time of the Assassins (late 13th century) to the1700s, terror and barbarism were widely used in warfare and conflict , but key ingredients for terrorism were lacking. Until the rise of the modern nation state after the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the sort of central authority and cohesive society that terrorism attempts to influence barely existed. Communications were inadequate and controlled, and the causes that might inspire terrorism (religious schism, insurrection, ethnic strife) typically led to open warfare. By the time kingdoms and principalities became nations, they had sufficient means to enforce their authority and suppress activities such as terrorism.
The French Revolution provided the first uses of the words "Terrorist" and "Terrorism". Use of the word "terrorism" began in 1795 in reference to the Reign of Terror initiated by the Revolutionary government. The agents of the Committee of Public Safety and the National Convention that enforced the policies of "The Terror" were referred to as 'Terrorists". The French Revolution provided an example to future states in oppressing their populations. It also inspired a reaction by royalists and other opponents of the Revolution who employed terrorist tactics such as assassination and intimidation in resistance to the Revolutionary agents. The Parisian mobs played a critical role at key points before, during, and after the Revolution. Such extra-legal activities as killing prominent officials and aristocrats in gruesome spectacles started long before the guillotine was first used.
Entering the Modern Era: The 19th Century

During the late 19th century, radical political theories and improvements in weapons technology spurred the formation of small groups of revolutionaries who effectively attacked nation-states. Anarchists espousing belief in the "propaganda of the deed" produced some striking successes, assassinating heads of state from Russia, France, Spain, Italy, and the United States. However, their lack of organization and refusal to cooperate with other social movements in political efforts rendered anarchists ineffective as a political movement. In contrast, Communism's role as an ideological basis for political terrorism was just beginning, and would become much more significant in the 20th century.
Another trend in the late 19th century was the increasing tide of nationalism throughout the world, in which the nation (the identity of a people) and the political state were combined. As states began to emphasize national identities, peoples that had been conquered or colonized could, like the Jews at the times of the Zealots, opt for assimilation or struggle. The best-known nationalist conflict from this time is still unresolved - the multi-century struggle of Irish nationalism. Nationalism, like communism, became a much greater ideological force in the 20th century.
The terrorist group from this period that serves as a model in many ways for what was to come was the Russian Narodnya Volya (Peoples Will). They differed in some ways from modern terrorists, especially in that they would sometimes call off attacks that might endanger individuals other than their intended target. Other than this quirk, we see many of the traits of terrorism here for the first time; clandestine, cellular organization; impatience and inability for the task of organizing the constituents they claim to represent; and a tendency to increase the level of violence as pressures on the group mount.

THE POLITICAL THEORY OF ANARCHISM AS A THEORY OF TERRORISM

2009-11-23T09:32:00.000+03:00

Terrorism is most definitely not a form of governance, but anarchism is. Most anarchists reject terrorism in its vanguard varieties (for nationalist or religious purposes), but in a theoretical sense, anarchism justifies terrorism as a form of criminal action that attacks the values of an organized, complacent society. Anarchism is a theory of governance that rejects any form of central or external authority, preferring instead to replace it with alternative forms of organization such as shaming rituals for deviants, mutual assistance pacts between citizens, syndicalism (any non-authoritarian organizational structure that gives the greatest freedom to workers), iconoclasm (the destruction of cherished beliefs), libertarianism (a belief in absolute liberty), and plain old rugged individualism. Anarchism is often referred to as the nineteenth century roots of terrorism, the term first being introduced in 1840 by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Anarchism defined is the rejection of the state, of any form of coercive government, of any form of domination and exploitation. It is the notion of free and equal access to all the world's resources to enable positive freedom (freedom to) in place of negative freedom (freedom from, or the basis of most constitutional rights).

As a theory, anarchism holds a unique place in history because it was the first revolutionary movement to come up with systematic ideas about the purpose of agitation. You'll recognize some of these ideas as terrorist tactics, but it's important first to understand them in the context of anarchism. Proudhon contributed the idea of finding the "moment" as in when the moment is ripe for revolutionary action. Another anarchist, Mikhail Bakunin, popularized the idea of "propaganda by deed" or letting your actions speak for themselves, which was a theory originally developed by Carlo Pisacane, an Italian revolutionary who argued that ideas spring from deeds and not the other way around. Over the years, this notion has evolved into a fairly competent philosophy of the bomb as part of a propaganda campaign to stimulate awareness and sympathy with the cause, and in this respect has been noted as a defining feature of terrorism (Georges-Abeyie & Hass 1982). Bakunin's ideas strongly influenced anarchism because his concept of propaganda by deed also included a prohibition against large scale group action (it being better, he thought, for anarchist action to be individualized or done in small groups). Most anarchists operate on the principle of leaderless resistance, or acting on your own, with little knowledge or support of the groups they may belong to. Another anarchist, Sergei Nachaev, who was an associate of Bakunin, glorified the "merciless" aspect of destruction, but it was Bakunin who laid out the six steps necessary to destroy a social structure, as paraphrased below:

*Kill the intelligensia (kill those who are intelligent and most energetic in society)
*Kidnap the rich and powerful (those who will yield the biggest ransoms)
*Infiltrate the politicians (to find out their secrets and discredit them)
*Help the guilty criminals (to confuse society over justice and punishment)
*Defend the loudmouths (those who make dangerous declarations)
*Nurture the supporters (help fellow travelers who believe in societal destruction)

Major anarchist figures, like Karl Heinzen and Johann Most, contributed the idea that murder, especially murder-suicide, constituted the highest form of revolutionary struggle. Both advocated the use of weapons of mass destruction. Other anarchists contributed different ideas, such as Peter Kropotkin's notion of "propaganda by word" or radicalizing the public by use of subversive publications. Anarchism (like fascism) has also had some influential female figures, and Emma Goldman (1869-1940) comes to mind as a early founder of free speech (the ACLU) and sexual freedom movements. Minor figures in the history of anarchism, like Charles Gallo, Auguste Vaillante, Emile Henry, and Claudius Konigstein advocated the idea that to have the most effect, the targets must be innocents (in places such as crowded dance halls or shopping centers) or symbols of economic success (like banks and stock exchanges). It may be worth noting, in passing, that the famous Italian criminologist, Cesare Lombroso, developed his notion of the "born criminal" in part by being called in to examine the physical features of some minor anarchists who were really nothing more than criminals justifying their behavior with anarchist talk.

Between 1875 and 1912, anarchists alone or in small groups managed to assassinate or attempt to assassinate the leaders of nine (9) different countries, including the U.S. (with President William McKinley in 1901). These crimes were just the most well-known acts of anarchism, as anarchists were involved in numerous ordinary crimes such as theft, robbery, murder, kidnapping, assault, and bombing. The most famous incident was the Haymarket riot in Chicago during 1886. During these peak years for classic anarchism, May Day celebrations became famous as all-out crime-rampant days. Police departments around the world became convinced there was an international conspiracy, and suspicious foreigners were locked up by the hundreds in many countries. Perfunctory trials were held, and many defendants were hanged or deported. The most famous of these trials was the 1920 case of Sacco and Vanzetti who were more antiwar and labor activists than anarchists. Anarchism in the classical sense was largely erased from the face of the earth by 1917 via a number of factors: the rise of communism and fascism (both of which are opposed to anarchism), strong xenophobic deportation (Red Scare) laws in democratic countries, and the fact that classic anarchism never became an organized movement. Twentieth-century terrorist groups which came later and claimed an ancestry with anarchism include: the Japanese Red Army, the British Angry Brigade, the German Baader-Meinhof Gang, the Weatherman in the United States, and the Mexican Zapatista movement (Kushner 2003). During the Spanish revolution of 1936, something called anarcho-syndicalism developed, which is a loose confederation of various protest groups (see the Workers Solidarity Alliance website). Those who call themselves anarchists today (see Purkis & Bowen 1997) are more likely to be environmentalists or part of the anti-globalization movement who target for attack such institutions as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, or World Trade Organization.

For purpose of balance, it is important to point out that anarchism today does not support terrorism. It has historically supported terrorism and even today might support assassination, but there are only weak theoretical links between the two, most strongly with the propaganda by deed concept. Anarchists hold to a doctrine that anarchy must be created in the act of self-liberation from oppressive and coercive relationships. You don't blow up the relationship as terrorists do; instead, you convince others that grounds for the existing relationship must be blown up. Anarchism is not about mad bombing or chaos. Terrorists target people; anarchists target things such as institutions and structures. Bakunin did not want the death of people but the destruction of things and positions of authority. Only a small minority of terrorists have ever been anarchists, and only a small minority of anarchists have ever been terrorists.

In fact, there is an area of study called anarchist criminology, a controversial subfield of critical criminology which celebrates the fact anarchism really has no workable definition (Tifft 1979; Ferrell 1997). Anarchist criminology advocates the abolishment of criminal justice systems. It argues that much harm has been committed in the name of reasonableness, and anarchist criminology is committed to promoting the unthinkable and unreasonable. Like other sub-fields of critical criminology, anarchist criminology views the state as an inherently oppressive entity, and anarchist justice not only promotes social justice (equal access to all resources), but protects diversity and difference among people (Ferrell 1999).

THEORIES AND CAUSES OF TERRORISM "The point of Theory isn't to think safe thoughts, but dangerous thoughts." (Ronald Beiner)

2009-11-20T11:01:00.002+03:00

Understanding the motivations and causes of terrorism helps to frame a comprehensive counterterrorism strategy. Yet, terrorists are not a homogeneous group. Their roots are diverse, not being the same from place to place. Some see themselves as legitimate geopolitical actors, while others are nothing more than gangs or thrill-kill cults. The history of theoretical effort at understanding terrorism comes from the subfield of collective violence in the field of political science, and indeed, prior to the emergence of criminal justice as a separate discipline in the early 1970s, it can be safely said that political science pretty much had a monopoly over theories of terrorism, followed perhaps by the disciplines of religion and economics. Sociological, psychological, and criminological theories have also certainly had a role to play with some relevance. We will begin, first, with the theories of political violence, and it is customary to say at this point that none of the following ideologies, or any ideology for that matter, are being advocated. The purpose is to provide an objective overview of theories, concepts, causal factors, and models. The underlying concern should be to answer the questions "Why Does Terrorism Occur?" or "What Causes It?" rather than pass judgment or assess any of the theories at this point. With the political theories, we shall see that it is often the form of governance which is the main cause of terrorism, and with the other theories, we will find a number of subcultural and personality factors at work. With other theories, such as sociology, we will see how things like the interplay between social movements and societal response can explain terrorism.

It should be noted that theory is more than the study of motive. In criminology, theories tend to take on more than the explanation of offender mindsets and behavior. They often tackle issues such as victimology and criminal justice system response. Motive itself is frequently ignored in the prosecution of terrorists (Smith 1994; Smith, Damphousse, Jackson & Karlson 2002). Sentencing variation exists in bringing terrorists to justice mostly due to "structural-contextual" effects (when components of criminal justice work more interdependently and not at odds with one another), and also to "liberation" effects (when judges and juries do not feel free to follow their own sentiments because the terrorist event was of high severity). Research is another area where theory tries to be useful. Terrorism databases, such as the ones at the MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base or the UMD START Database, are often analyzed in various ways which afford an opportunity to test theories, tease out the relevant variables or factors, and do comparative theory testing, etc., all of which point to the larger purposes of theory, such as to guide research and policy.

Supprimer le message

Terrorism;a Definition

2009-11-20T10:58:00.003+03:00

Terrorism can be defined as the use of force to produce a certain fearful state of mind and by the evocation of fear in someone other than those to whom the force is applied. In addition, the demands made by terrorists (the conditions they set) can be distinguished from the aim of their act of terror which relates to the targets. Acts of terror may also intend to impress audiences, either the general audience of public opinion, or special audiences consisting of potential rivals or allies of the terrorist. Characteristics of terrorism include pursuit of an absolute end, such as national liberation, as the absolute standard of morality; self-righteousness and a demoneization of the target; a renewed sense of masculinity, for male terrorists, and the sense of acquiring a new identity; and a sense of performing on the stage of history by being able to compel powerful and prestigious persons. In addition, terrorism embodies the magic of symbols and of violence. Combating terrorism includes unwavering refusals to release arrested terrorists for trial by others, rejection of all terrorist demands for the release of those imprisoned for previous terrorist acts, and punishment of accessories before and after the fact. Terrorists should be tried as individuals, rather than as a group, and the psychic distance with which the terrorist is responded to should be increased. Media coverage should be minimized and penal sentences, rather than capital punishment, should be inflicted.

Understanding Terror Based Violence

2009-11-20T10:20:00.000+03:00

suicide terrorism is rising around the world, but the most common explanations do not help us understand why. Religious fanaticism does not explain why the world leader in suicide terrorism is the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka, a group that adheres to a Marxist/Leninist ideology, while existing psychological explanations have been contradicted by the widening range of socio-economic backgrounds of suicide terrorists. To advance our understanding of this growing phenomenon, this study collects the universe of suicide terrorist attacks worldwide from 1980 to 2001, 188 in all and tries to explain their relevance using the theory of Gestalt.
In contrast to the existing explanations, this study shows that suicide terrorism follows a strategic logic, one specifically designed to coerce modern liberal democracies to make significant territorial concessions. Moreover, over the past two decades, suicide terrorism has been rising largely because terrorists have learned that it pays. Suicide terrorists sought to compel American and French military forces to abandon Lebanon in 1983, Israeli forces to leave Lebanon in 1985, Israeli forces to quit the Gaza Strip and the West Bank in 1994 and 1995, the Sri Lankan government to create an independent Tamil state from 1990 on, and the Turkish government to grant autonomy to the Kurds in the late 1990s. In all but the case of Turkey, the terrorist political cause made more gains after the resort to suicide operations than it had before. Thus, Western democracies should pursue policies that teach terrorists that the lesson of the 1980s and 1990s no longer holds, policies which in practice may have more to do with improving homeland security than with offensive military action.

Supprimer le message